BIOLOGY 1ST YEAR SINDH BOARD

MCQ's Biology Notes Inter Part I 

1. Which of the following is the characteristic of the living thing?
A. have specific shape
B. have regular shape
C. have organized body
D. none of the above
2. Which of the followings includes in homeostasis?
a. To maintain the shaped of the body
b. To maintain the balance of the body
c. To maintain the temperature of the body
d. To keep the animal away from the body
3. Your hearts starts beating before seven month of your birth. The
study of your body at this stage comes within:
(a) Morphology (b) Embryology (c) Anatomy (d) Histology
4. A doctor is studying the contraction and relaxation of a heart. He
is studying:
(a) Morphology (b) Embryology (c) Anatomy (d) Histology
5. Study of different parts of eye is called
(a) Histology (b) Anatomy (c) Physiology (d) None of these
6. A biologist removes some bones of dinosaurs from a rock. He is
studying:
(a) Morphology (b) Paleontology (c) Ecology (d) None of these
7. Darwin sys, “man has formed from monkey”. He talked about
(a) Fossil (b) Evolution (c) Taxonomy (d) None of these
8. Kangaroo lives in Australia but buffaloes lives in Pakistan. The
study of this distribution of animals is called
(a) Ecology (b) Environmental biology (c) Taxonomy (d) Zoogeography
9. The study of structure of molecule of starch is called:
(a) Molecular biology (b) Biochemistry (c) Morphology (d) None 
10. The study of Amoeba comes with in the branch of biology:
(a) Taxonomy (b) Ecology (c) Microbiology (d) None 
11. The study of affects of pollution comes within:
(a) Environmental biology (b) Taxonomy (c) Physiology (d) Genetics
12. The study of organisms living in lake is called:
(a) Marine biology (b) Taxonomy (c) Physiology (d) Fresh water biology
13. The study of amount salt, temperature etc of water of sea comes
within:
(a) Environmental biology (b) Taxonomy
(c) Marine biology (d) None of the above
14. The study of life cycle of plasmodium comes within:
(a) Parasitology (b) Taxonomy
(c) Physiology (d) None of the above
15. The grouping of men is:
(a) Human biology (b) Social biology
(c) Biotechnology (d) None of above
16. The use of yeast in banking industry, and use of bacteria for
making yogurt from milk are studied in:
(a) Human biology (b) Social biology
(c) Biotechnology (d) None of above
17. A biologist studies all structure and functions of different parts
of a man. His work is included in branch of biology called:
(a) Human biology (b) Social biology
(c) Biotechnology (d) None of above
18. Biological organization means:
a. Study of different organisms
b. Study of different branches of biology
c. Study of All the subjects of sciences
d. Study of biology at different levels
19. Trace elements are those:
a.Which are necessary for the organisms
Which are present in a very small quantity in the body
Which are required in small quantity in the body.
Which do not require to body.
20. Common bio elements are:
Calcium, phosphorus and carbon
Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen
Calcium, copper and carbon
(a) and (b)
21. Protoplasm is a:
(a) second name of cell (b) second name of cytoplasm
(c) second name of Nucleolus(d) (b) and (c)
22. Bioelements are those elements:
Which are eaten by the organisms
Which are formed within the organisms
Which are used in the chemical compounds in the organisms
Which are released by the organisms
23. Which statement is not correct about biosphere:
(a) It is present on the earth (b) It is present in the oceans
(c) It is present in the river (d) It is present in the space.
24. Ecosystem is composed of:
(a) a community (b) a population
(c) a species (d) none of the above
25. Which of the followings is an organ system?
(a) oesophagus (b) Stomach
(c) intestine (d) All (a) and (c)
26. Which one of the followings is an organ?
(a) Cornea (b) Retina
(c) Eye (d) Eye muscles
27. Which of the followings is a tissue?
(a) Heart (b) stomach
(c) bone (d) Liver

28. Skin is:
(a) an organ (b) a tissue
(c) an organ system (d) None of all
29. ATP is a nucleotide. It is a:
(a) Micromolecules (b) Macromolecule
(c) Microelement (d) Microelement
30. Carbon dioxide is a compound of carbon. It is:
(a) an inorganic compound (b) an organic compound
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) none of the above
31. Nucleus is:
(a) an organelles (b) Protoplasm
(c) cytoplasm (d) None of the above
32. A prokaryotic cell:
has well defined nucleus 
is without nucleus and DNA
is without nucleus but DNA is present
None of above
33. A eukaryotic cell:
(a) Without well defined nucleus (b) is without nucleus and DNA
(c) is with nucleus but DNA is absent(d) has both nucleus and DNA
34. Number of persons living in Multan is called
(a) Population of Multan (b) Community of Multan
(c) Ecosystem of Multan (d) None of above
35. Community of Lahore includes:
All the humans living in Lahore
All the organisms living in Lahore
All the animals living in Lahore
All the plants in Lahore.
36. Gene frequency mean:
Number of genes present in an organism
Number of genes present in a population
Number of genes present in a community
None of above
37. An island in an sea is a:
(a) a population (b) Simple community
(c) complex community (d) None of the above
38. A dog kills a rabbit
(a) Rabbit is a predator (b) Dog is a prey
(c) Dog is a predator (d) Both are predator
39. Which one of the following is a biome:
(a) An ocean (b) A river
(c) Conifer forest (d) A garden
40. The fossils present in the older layer of a rock could be:
Ancestor of the fossils present in the younger sediments
Have equal age as that of younger sediments
Offspring of the younger sediment
None of the above
41. The older sediments in a rock have:
Smaller amount of radioactive substance than the younger one
Larger amount of radioactive substance than the younger one
Equal amount of radioactive substance with the younger one
Do not have radioactive substance at all
42. We are now living in:
(a) Proterozoic era (b) Paleozoic era
(c) Mesozoic era (d) Coenozoic era
43. Phyletic lineage means:
(a) 2000 Million years ago (b) 3000 Million years age
(c) 4000 Million years age (d) 5000 Million years age
44. Phyletic lineage means:
All the organisms have same ancestor and they show similarities.
All the organisms have different ancestor but they show certain
Similarities
All the organisms have same ancestor but they do not show
Similarities
None of the above
45. Total number of species on the earth is:
(a) 2.5 Millions (b) 2 Millions
(c) 3.5 Millions (d) 1.5 Millions
46. The most abundant group on the earth is:
(a) Mammals (b) Birds
(c) Insects (d) Reptiles
47. Which group of the followings has lowest number of species?
(a) Vascular plants (b) Animals
(c) Insects (d) Algae, protozoa and Prokaryotes
48. Measurement of temperature is:
(a) Quantitative (b) Qualitative observation
(c) None of the above 
49. Mammals have hairs on their bodies. Dog also have hairs on its
body. So dog is also a mammal. It is:
(a) Deductive reasoning (b) Inductive reasoning
(c) None of the above 
50. Inductive reason moves from:
(a) Known towards unknown (b) Unknown towards known
(c) Known towards known (d) none of the above

Answers
check your ability by matching your choice to these
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b)
7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10.(c) 11.(a) 12.(d)
13.(c) 14.(a) 15.(b) 16.(c) 17.(a) 18.(d)
19.(b) 20.(d) 21.(d) 22.(c) 23.(d) 24.(d)
25.(d) 26.(c) 27.(c) 28.(a) 29.(a) 30.(a)
31.(a) 32.(c) 33.(d) 34.(a) 35.(b) 36.(b)
37.(b) 38.(c) 39.(c) 40.(a) 41.(a) 42.(d)
43.(b) 44.(a) 45.(a) 46.(c) 47.(d) 48.(a)
49.(a) 50.(b)

Zoology True And False XI Karachi Board True and False

1. Bat is a flying bird.
2. Hydra is diploblastic animal.
3. Archaepteryx is a fossil bird.
4. Prototheria are egg-laying mammals.
5. Human heart is four-chambered.
6. Fishes respire through skin.
7. Intracellular digestion occurs between the cells.
8. Frog is a carnivorous animal.
9. Typhlosol is a dorsal absorptive ridge.
10. Water vascular system is present only in Echinodermata.
11. Melatonin is secreted by cretins.
12. The heart of the crocodile consists of three chambers.
13. The accumulation of nerves and sensory organs in the head is known as Caphalization.
14. The Prototherians are pouched mammals.
15. Ammocoete is the larva of lamprey.
16. The spicules form the skeleton in sponges.
17. Plasmodium is an Endo-parasite.
18. Jelly-fish belongs to the class pieces.
19. Trypsin digests fats.
20. Pathology is the study of diseases.
21. Whale is a fish.
22. Planaria belongs to the phylum Oplatyhelminthes.
23. Neuron is the unit of the nervous system.
24. Throid gland secretes thyrotopins bormone.
25. Ascaris is found as a parasite in the intestine of man.
26. Amnion is the protective membrane of the embryo of frog.
27. Trypanosome is an external parasite.
28. Arteries carry the blood away from the heart.
29. Nephridia are respiratory organs.
30. Flagella are the organs of locomotion.
31. The inner ear is responsible for maintaing the balance of the body.
32. The cross section of the spinal cord shows the gray matter lying on the outside.
33. Pathology is the study of disease.
34. Gastrozooids are reproductive Zooids of the colony.
35. Amphioxus belongs to sub-phylum vertebrate.
36. Retina contains rods and cones.
37. Larynx is a part of the Digestive system.
38. Molluscus secrete shells of various types.
39. Mammals are Warm-blooded animals.

40. Intracellular digestion takes place between the cells.
41. Kiwi is a flying bird.

Zoology XI Karachi Board MCQs

1. Sacculina belongs to __________. 
(Arthropoda, Nematoda, Annelida) 
2. The locomotory organs of sea star are __________. 
(Parapoda, Setae, Tube-feet) 
3. Prehensile tail is present in __________. 
(El fish, Sea horse, Wall lizard) 
4. Ascaris is parasite in __________. 
(Stomach, Intestine, Liver) 
5. Pineal glands secrete __________. 
(Thyroxin, Melatonin, Esterogen) 
6. Bicuspid valve lies between __________. 
(Righ Auricle and right Ventricle, Left Auricle and Ventricle, Right Auricle and Left Ventricle) 
7. Monocytes and __________ are agrantocytes. 
(Neutrophils, Colgi body, Lymhocytes) 
8. Glucose is converted during glycolysis into __________. 
(Urea, Uric acid, Pyruvic Acid) 
9. Liver-fluke lives in __________. 
(Liver, Gall bladder, Bile duct) 
10. The class Ophiurodiea belongs to the phylum __________. 
(Echimedermate, Aschelminthes, Urochordate) 
11. The skeleton of a dog-fish is made of __________. 
(Bones, Cartilages, Muscles) 
12. The prehensile tail is present in __________. 
(Eel fish, Sea horse, Bat) 
13. Rods and cones are present in the eye of a __________. 
(Cockroach, Human, Leech) 
14. Each villus is provided with lymph vessels called __________. 
(Venules, Lacteals, Veins) 
15. The organs of excretion in cockroach are called __________. 
(Nephridia, Malpighian Tubules, Gills) 
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16. Ductless glands are known as __________. 
(Endocrine Glands, Digestive Glands, Milk Glands) 
17. Leishmania is a parasite of __________. 
(Intestine, Blood, Bile duct) 
18. Each villus is provided with lymph vessels called __________. 
(Arteris, lacteals, Venules) 
19. Throxin hormone is secreted by __________. 
(Thyroid glands, Pituitary Glands, Adrenal glands) 
20. The body of __________ is covered by epidermal scales __________. 
(Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds) 
21. Water vascular system is present in __________. 
(Star Fish, Sponge, Leech) 
22. The free swimming larva of liver fluke is __________. 
(Trochophore, Miracidium, Glochidium) 
23. Tape worms are parasites living in __________. 
(Intestine, Muscles, Lungs) 
24. The Coelenterates bear stinging cells called __________. 
(Sporocysts, Conocysts, Nematocysts) 

Zoology XI Karachi Board Fill in the Blanks

1. Salivary amylase digests carbohydrates in __________ medium.
2. The life-cycle of Plasmodium in mosquito discovered by __________.
3. The larva of Balanoglossus (acron worm( is called __________.
4. Legless amphibians are included in class __________.
5. Flame cells are found in __________.
6. Nephridia are the excretory organs of __________.
7. Butterfly exhibits __________ metamorphosis.
8. Euplectella belongs to __________.
9. Termites live in __________ colony.
10. Reptiles, birds and mammals are collectively called __________.
11. In sponges the spongocoel is lined with __________.
12. Cyclops is an example of the phylum __________.
13. In 1880 A.D Lavern discovered a protozoan parasite in the __________ of a malaria patient.
14. A protozoan parasite __________ causes human dysentery.
15. The organs of excretion in insects are __________.
16. There are five pairs of gills in __________ class of fish.
17. Saccutina a parasite of __________.
18. Thyroxine contains __________.
19. The larva of polychaete is called __________.
20. Elephantiasis is caused by __________.
21. The cnidoblasts are present in the phylum __________.
22. Rock mountain spotted fever is transmitted by cetain __________.
23. The end product of carbohydrate digestion is __________.
24. The contractile vacuole performs the function of __________.
25. Scyphistoma is the larval form of __________.
26. The study of the functions of the organs is known as __________.
27. Nearly 200 years ago the mammals evolved from __________
28. __________ is the largest gland.
29. Mantle is the characteristic of the phylum __________.
30. Class __________ has the largest number of species of the whole animal kingdom.
31. Kangaroo belongs to the sub class __________.
32. The locomotory organs of polychaets are __________.
33. Non-nucleated R.B.C are found in blood of __________.
34. The fore-brain consists of Telencephalon and __________.
35. Bat is a flying __________.
36. Phylum __________ and __________ include marine animals.
37. __________ is the unit of excretory organs.
38. Respiration is the process of __________.
39. __________ is an example of Polymorphism.
40. Book lungs are the respiratory organs of __________.
41. In insects the excretion is performed by __________.
42. Class Agnatha is also called __________.
43. Cortisone hormone is seceted by __________ gland.
44. Swim bladder is found in the class __________.
45. The larva of Neries is called __________.
46. Spider belongs to the class __________.
47. The heart of a bird is divided into __________ chambers.
48. Cercaria is the larva of __________.
49. The dendrons carry inpulse towards __________.
50. The outer layer of the wall of the eyeball is known as __________.
51. Flame cells are the organs of __________.
52. Balano glosus is included in the Phylum __________.
53. The meaning of malaria is __________.
54. The study of the internal structure of an organism is called __________.
55. Flame cells are excretory organs of phylum __________.
56. Trypanosome is a blood parasite.
57. The dissimilar teeth in mammals are called __________.
58. The respiratory organs of insects are __________.
59. The skeletal parts of sponges are called __________.
60. Nematocysts are found in the phylum __________.
61. Enzyme pepsin is secreted by the __________ glands.

Botany True and False XI Karachi Board True and False intermediate board karachi

1. Bacteria are closely related to blue-green algae.
2. Virus cells are prokaryotic.
3. Cocci are kidney-shaped.
4. The membrane surrounding vacuole is called leucoplast.
5. Ulva is a blue green plant.
6. Female sex organs in Marchantia are borne on Antheriodiophores.
7. The androecium in mustard is called Tetradenamous.
8. Phylloclade is the modification of leaf.
9. Marchantia is a water plant.
10. Angiosperms are non-bearing plants.
11. Plumule develops into the root system.
12. Ribosomes are the centres of protein synthesis.
13. Marchantia is a dioecious plant.
14. Phanerogams are flowering plants.
15. Endosperm is not the food storage tissue of a seed.
16. In protoplasm water is about 80%.
17. Animal and plant cells do not differ from each other.
18. Bacillus are rod-like or kidney-shaped.
19. Bryophytes have well-developed conducting tissues.
20. Ulva is a sea weed.
21. Gemma cup cannot develop into a Marchantia plant.
22. Zoospores in Stigeoclonium is quadriflagellated.
23. Euglena has the characteristics of plant only.
24. Phycocyanin pigment is found in Chlamydomonas.
25. The plant body of Ulva is made up of mycelium.
26. Eukaryotes include those organisms that lack membrane around nucleus, mitochondria and colgi apparatus.
27. For the first time, cell was discovered by Robert Hooks.
28. Plasma membrane is composed of cellulose.
29. In family Fabaceae the fruit is legume.
30. Spermatophytes include ferns and mosses.
31. Capitulum is a collection of flowers.
32. Raphanus sativus belongs to the family Poaceae.
33. When petals are free, the condition is called polypetalous.
34. Virus is a connecting link between living and non-living.
35. Pinus is a plant which bears seeds but no fruits.
36. All the cells arise from pre-existing cell.
37. Ulva is a fresh water algae.
38. Stegioclonium is not heterotrichous.
39. Berry is an example of a simple fleshy fruit.
40. The seeds of pea plant are endospermic.
41. Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus.
42. The endosperm in angiosperms is diploid.
43. The cryptogams are flowering plants.
44. Legume is an example of simple fruit.
45. In vallisnaria pollination takes place through water.

Botany MCQS XI Karachi Board MCQs
1. The male gamete of Selaginella is __________.
(Biflagellate, Multiflagellate, Nonflagellate, Monoflagellate)
2. Stomata are organs which help in __________.
(Transpiration, Locomotion, Digeation, Growth(
3. Chlamydomonas is __________.
(Algae, Fungi, Multicellular, Non-motile)
4. Potato belongs to the family __________.
(Cruciferae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae)
5. Ginger is a __________.
(Fruit, Root, Rhizoma, Corn)
6. Hypogeal germination takes place by elongation of __________.
(Celeorhiza, Epicotyle, Radicle, Hypocotyle)
7. Phyllode is the modification of __________.
(Alerial stem, Leaf, Underground stem, Root)
8. In Fabaceae the placentation is __________.
(Axile, Parietal, Marginal, Basal)
9. Plants that bear two types of spores are called __________.
(Heterozygous, Homozygous, Homosporous, Heterosporous)
10. Flagella are the organs, which help in __________.
(Digestion, Locomotion, Photosynthesis, Respiration)
11. Rhizopus is __________.
(A parasite, A saprophyte, Symbiotic, Chemotrophic)
12. Rice belongs to the family __________.
(Cruciferae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae)
13. Potato is an example of __________.
(Bulb, Rhizome, Stem tuber, Corm)
14. Epigeal germination takes place in __________.
(Gram seed, Castor seed, Maize seed, Rice)
15. Heterosproy is found in __________.
(Selaginella, Rhizopus, Ulva, Polytrichum)
16. The fusion of similar gametes in structure and shape is called __________.
(Homospory, Isogamy, Oogamy, Anisogamy)
17. Virus is chemically composed of __________.
(Starch and Protein, Fat and nucleic acid, D.N.A and lipids, Protein and Nucleic cid)
18. Streaming movement of cytoplasm in the cells is called __________.
(Clycolysis, Cyclosis, Meiosis, Mitosis)
19. Incipient nucleus is found in __________.
(Ulva, Stegioclonium, Nostoc, Rhizopus)
20. The plant whose body is a mycelium is __________.
(Euglena, Ulva, Rhizopus, Chlamydomonas)
21. In Marchantia elators are found in __________.
(Gamma cup, Assimilatory chamber, Rhizoids, Capsule)
22. Winged pollengrain is characteristic of __________.
(Solanum tuberosum, Zeamays, Pinus, Brassica Compestrics)
23. The modification of stem in ginger is called __________.
(Sucker, Tuber, Bulb, Rhizome)
24. Vascular tissue system is found in __________.
(Marchantia, Adiantum, Rhizopus, Ulva)
25. Fusion of similar gametes is called __________.
(Oogamous, Isogamous, Heterosporous, Homosporous)
26. __________ of the following pair belongs to vascular plants.
(Funaria and Ulva, Ulva and Rhynia, Euglena and Nostoc, Selaginella and Rhynia)
27. Verticellaster inflorescence is found in __________.
(Fabaceae, Labiatae, Solanaceae, Poaceae)
28. __________ deals with the structure, composition and function of the cells.
(Physiology, Anatomy, Cytology, Histology)
29. Reproduction by binary fission occurs in __________.
(Bacteria, Euglena, Virus, Nostoc)
30. The membrane surrounding the vacuole is known as __________.
(Tonoplast, Leucoplast, Chromoplast, Chloroplast)
31. The ribosomes are the centres of __________.
(carbohydrate synthesis, Fat synthesis, DNA synthesis, Protein Synthesis)
32. In lily plant the stem is modified into __________.
(Rhizome, Bulb, Stem tuber, Corm)
33. In Chlamydomonas the chloroplast is __________.
(Cup-shaped, Girdle-shaped, Disc-shaped, Band-shaped)
34. Hypogeal germination occurs in __________.
(Cucumber, Castor, Papaya, Gram)
35. The most primitive vascular plant which lived 40 million years ago was _________.
(Marchanita, Stigeoclonium, Rhynia, Selaginella)
36. The alternation of generations in Ulva is __________.
(Heteromorphic Isomorphic, Isoheteromorphic, Dimorphic)
37. Reproductive bodies, the gammae are found in __________.
(Marchantia, Selaginella, Pinus, Potato Plant)
38. Dwarf shoots are spurs are found in __________.
(Pinus, Selaginella, Stigeoclonium, Eucalyptus)
39. Feathery stigma is present in the family __________.
(Brassicaeae, Poaceae, Solanaceae, Fabaceae)

Botany Fill in the Blanks - XI Karachi Board 
1. Chloroplasts are __________ green in colour.
2. Phycocyanin pigment is found in __________.
3. The pollination that takes place by water is known as __________.
4. The male sex organ in Bryphyta is know as Antherridium.
5. Petals are the component parts of __________.
6. In Chlamydomonas the chloroplas is __________ shaped.
7. A carpel consists of stigma, style and __________.
8. A fruit that develop purely from ovary is said to be simple fruit.
9. Chloroplasts are the centres of __________ synthesis.
10. A phage is a virus that infects __________.
11. Chloroplast is __________ in Cyanopyceae.
12. The pollen grains of __________ are winged.
13. Ribosomes are the centres of __________ synthesis.
14. Viruses are __________ obligate parasites.
15. The plants, which cannot synthesize their own food materials, are called _________ heterotrophic plants.
16. The word virus is derived from the Latin word. It means __________.
17. The collection of Hyphae is called __________.
18. In Bryophyte water is absorbed through __________.
19. The branches in Pinus are __________.
20. The plant body of Stigeoclonium is __________.
21. A sexual reproduction in Chalamydomanas takes place by means of motile cells called __________.
22. Pinus is an example of __________.
23. Alternation of generation in Ulva is __________.
24. Pollination by wind is called __________.
25. Stames and carpels are modified __________.
26. Thread-like structures in nucleus are called __________.
27. The germinating pollen grain is a tiny male __________.
28. Fleshy fruits are dispersed by __________.
29. __________ is a food storage tissue.
30. Pitcher plant is the modification of __________.
31. Carpal is regarded as __________ female reproductive system.
32. Leaf Spine reduces the rate of __________.
33. Brassica compestris is a member of family __________.
34. Component parts of Calyx are called __________.
35. Fabaceae family has __________ placentation.
36. Bulbil is a modification of __________.
37. Eye spot is found in __________.
38. Solanum tuberosum belongs to the family __________.
39. In castor seed the papery cotyledons are surrounded by __________.
40. Glumes are found in the family __________.
41. After fertilization ovule changes into __________.
42. D.N.A is the abbreviation of __________.
43. In Nepenthes the leaf is modified into a structure called __________.
44. Plant cell is surrounded by a cell wall, which is made up of a __________.
45. The percentage of carbohydrates present in the protoplasm is only _________.
46. In maize grain the cotyledon is known as __________.
47. Ulva is also called __________.
48. The sporophyte of Marchantia consists of foot, setae and __________
49. The inflorescence with dense cluster of flowers on a receptacle is called _________.
50. In castor seed a cup like outgrowth at the micropyle end is known as _________.
51. The plant which has 2n chromosomes is called __________.

                                          Plant Families


1- CAESAL PINIOIDEAE/CASIA FAMILY
CLASSIFICATION
* DIVISION : ANGIOSPERMS 
* CLASS : DICOTYLEDON 
* SUBCLASS : POLYPETALAE 
* SERIES : CALCIFLORAE 
* ORDER : ROSALES 
* FAMILY : LEGUMINOSAE 
* SUB-FAMILY : CAESALPINIOIDEAE OR CAESALPINIACEAE. 
GENERAL CHARACTERS
Majority of these plants are trees or shrubs, about 135 genera and 5800 species are known .
VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS
ROOT
Usually, Taproot with nodules and primary, secondary and tertiary divisions.
STEM
Usually, Climbing stem or erect herbaceous or woody, Some plants show xerophytic character.

LEAVES
Usually, Compound leaves bipinnate, stipulate.
INFLORESCENCE
Usually, Racemose.
FLORAL CHARACTER
Usually, Complete, bisexual, perigynous, zygomorphic, pentamerous.
CALYX
5 sepals, polysepalous, imbricate or valvate, Green in colour.
COROLLA
5 petals, poly petalous, imbricate aestivation.

ANDROECIUM
Usually, 10 stamens, polyanderous, exerted, extrose.
GYNOECIUM
Usually Monocarpillary, perigynous, placentational marginal, unilocular with many ovules.
FLORAL FORMULA
+ , Q , K(5) , C(5) , A10 , G1/
POLLINATION
Usually, Cross pollination by insects (entomophilly)
SEEDS
Usually, Both endospermic and non-endospermic.
FRUIT
Legume pod.

ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE
MEDICINAL PLANS

* Amaltas 
* Kachnar 
* Tamarindus Indica 
* Panwar. e.t.c. 

ORNAMENTALS
* Parkinsonia 
* Gul-e-mohar 
* Cacia sophera 

DYES AND STAINING
Haemotoxylin is obtained from haemotoxylon campechianom.
EDIBLE FRUIT
* Lomentum (Imli) 
FIBER
Suitable fiber for paper making is obtained from parkinsonia Aculeata.
FAMILIAR PLANTS
Botanical name............Common Name...............Local Names
1-Tamarindus indica.........Tamarind.................Imli
2-Cassia fistula............Amaltus.
3-Bauninia verigata.........Camel’s foot.............Kachnar
4-Poinciana regia...........Flame of Forest .........Gul-e-Mohar
5-Parkinosia roxburgai......VilayatiKikar
FLORAL DIAGRAM
(From Book)

2 MIMOSACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME
It is also known as “Acacia family”.
CLASSIFICATION
* DIVISION : ANGIOSPERMS 
* CLASS : DICOTYLEDON 
* SUBCLASS: POLYPETALAE 
* SERIES : CALCIFLORAE 
* ORDER : ROSALES 
* FAMILY : LEGUMINOSAE 
* SUBFAMILY : MIMOSACEAE / ACACIA 
GENERAL CHARACTERS
It is the smallest group among the 3 groups of family legume. It contains about 40 genera and 1450 species.
HABITAT
Mostly plants are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Great variation inhabit, usually these trees are perinial or binnial shrubs, some are herbs and climbing.
VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

1. ROOT
Usually, Tap root with side branches, nodules are present.
2. STEM
Usually, Erect and woody stem, rarely herbacious, tannin and gums may also present.
3. LEAVES
Usually, Compound, bipinnate, stipule are modified into spines. In many plants leaves show sleeping movement or after having a shock.
INFLORESCENCE
Mostly, racemose.
FLORAL CHARACTERS
Usually, Complete, bisexual actinomorphic, perigynous, pentamerous.

1. CALYX
Usually, 5 sepals, gamosepalous, valvate.
2. COROLLA
Usually, 5 petals, polypetalous, valvate aestivation, small size.
3. ANDROCEIUM
Usually, numerous stamens, exerted, extrose, basifixed anther.
4. GYNOECIUM
Usually, Monocarpillary, perigynous, unilocular, placentation marginal, many ovules in locule.
POLLINATION
Usually, cross pollination by insects (entomophilly).

SEEDS
Usually, Non-endospermic or with very little endosperm.
FRUIT
Usually, It is called legume.
FLORAL FORMULA

+ ,Q , K(5) , C(5) , Aα , G1/
ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE
1.WOOD YIELDING PLANTS

e.g-prosopis

* Acacia species 

* Albizzia 

* Xyliaet 

2. ORNAMENTALS

e.g-Mimosa pudica (chuimoi)

* Austratian Acacia 

* Neptunia 

3. FOODER

From leaves of prosopis,

* Acacia 

* Dicrostachys e.t.c. 

4. SOAP POPS

Acacia concinna pods have (soponim), a substance can be used as Soap.
5. CATECHU (KATHA)

Piece of hard wood
6. MEDICINAL USE

* Katha 

* Siah Kanta 

* Entada 

* Acacia senegal 

e.t.c.
7. GUMS & DYES

* Katha 

* Safed Babul 

* Sada Babul 

IMPORTANT FAMILY MEMBERS

BOTANICAL NAME..............COMMON NAME................LOCAL NAME

1-Acacia nilotica................Gum tree.................Bauble, Kikar

2-Albizzia lebbek................Siris

3-Mimosa pudica.................Touch-me-not..............Chhui mui

4-Prosopis glandulosa............Prosopis.................Dev i

5-Acacia catechu.................Katha plant
FLORAL DIAGRAM

(FROM BOOK)


3- ROSACEAE
CLASSIFICATION

* Division 

* Class 

* Subclass 

* Series 

* Order 

* Family: Rosaceae / Rose family. 

GENERAL CHARACTERS

It has about 100 genera and 2000 species.
HABITAT

These plants are found growing all over the world 213 species of about 29 genera are reported from Pakistan.

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

1. ROOT

Usually, Tap root with its usual branching.

2. STEM

Usually, Green herbaceous, cylindrical, small spines are also present.

3. LEAVES

Usually, Simple leaves with or without petiole, Opposite or alternate.
INFLORSCENCE

Usually Racemose
FLORAL CHARACTERS

Usually, Complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, perigynous, pentamerous.

1. CALYX

Usually, Sometime epicalyx may also be present, of variable number, 5 sepals are present, Gamosepalous, green, pubescent.

2. COROLLA

Usually, 5 petals or multiple of 5 petals, polypetalous, aestivation, imbricate, shape-rosaceous, full of colour.

3. ANDROCEIUM

Usually, Nomerous stamen,ditheous, anther, enerted, extrose, dorsi fixed.

4. GYNOECIUM

Usually, Monocarpillary or multiple capillary with formation of a single compound pistil. Ovary perigynous, unilocular two or more ovules are present, placentation axile when the carpels are many and syncarpous
FLORAL FORMULA

+ , Q , K(5) , C(α) , Ax , G1/ (2-5) or x
ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE
FRUIT

Economical importance of this family is great in providing the pleasure and welfare of mankind. Plants of many famous fruits belong to this family for e.g. Apple, pear, peach, e.t.c. Perhaps they rank 3rd in commercial importance in the temperate, zone among the families of flowering plants.
ORNAMENTALS

A large no. of ornamental plants of this family are grown in parks and gardens the most widely cultivated plant for this purpose is Rosa. Many others genera are also grown for their beautiful flowers in homes and gardens.
OTHERS

Branches of crataegus and cotoneaster provide excellent walking stick and wood. The wood of pyruspastia is used for making tobacco pipes. In Asian countries rose petals are used in making Gul Khand and are also used in extraction of an essential oil, Rose oil, used as perfume or may be used as eye cleaner in certain diseases.
FAMILIAR PLANTS

BOTANICAL NAME...................COMMON NAME..............LOCAL NAME

Malva silvestis............................Apple........ ............Seb

Pyrus pyrifolia............................Pear......... ............Nashpati

Prunus amygdalus...........................Almond........ ............Badam

Rosa indica................................Rose........ ..............Gulab

Prunus persica.............................Peach......... ............Aru
FLORAL DIAGRAM

(FROM BOOK)


4-SOLANACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME

Night shade or Potato family
HABIT AND HABITAT

* It is widely distributed in temperate region and very abundant in tropical countries. 

* The plants are usually herbs or climbing vines but may be shrub. 

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

1-ROOT

Tap root and branched

2-STEM

Herbacious, erect or underground(Potato)

3-LEAF

Alternate in vegetative and opposite in floral region
FLORAL CHARCTERS

1-INFLORESCENCE

Cyme sometimes helicoids

2-FLOWER

Pentamerous, Bisexual, Regular, Actinomorphic, Hypogynous.

3-CALYX

Five, united sepals

4-COROLLA

Five petals, united, valvate aestivation

5-ANDROCIEUM

Five stamens, Inserted on Corolla

6-GYNOECIUM

Bicarpellary, Syncarpous (Carpels fused), Placentaion axile.

7-FRUIT

Capsule Berry or Xanthium.

8-SEED

Minute with abundant endosperm.
FLORAL FORMULA

+ , O , K(5) , A5, C(5) ,
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Members of this family provide drugs and food. Some plants are poisonous and other are ornamental. This family is of great economic importance as it provides food, fodder, drugs and ornamentals.
1-FOODER

* Solanum tuberosum (Potato) 

* Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato) 

* Solanum melongena (Brinjal) 

2-CONDIMENTS

* Fruit of capsicum 

* Capsicum frutenscens 

3-EDIBLE FRUIT

* Physalis (Cherry or Rasbhari) 

4-DRUG YIELDING

* Atropa belladonna (atropine) 

* Dotura (Daturine) 

* Used in severe cold and in eye diseases. 

* Sap of hanbane is used in dilating the pupils, white cherry is used an nerve tonic. 

5-ORNAMENTAL

* Cultivated in gardens 

* Petunaia 

* Nicotiana 

* Cestrum Schizanthus 

* Brunfelsia solanum 

6-CIGARETTE MAKING

* Nicotiania tobacum (Tobacco) 

IMPORTANT FAMILY MEMBERS

BOT-NAME........................COMMON NAME.........................LOC-NAME

1-Solanum Tuberosum..................Potato................. .............Aaloo

2-Solanum Melongena..................Bringal................ .............Bengan

3-Lycoperscum Escalentum.............Tomato..................... .........Temater

4-Capsicum Annum.....................Red-Pepper..........................Lal-mirch

5-Petunia Alba.......................Petunia

6-Solanum Nigrum.....................Black Night shade

7-Datura Alba........................Thorn apple

8-Nicotiana Tobaccum.................Tobacco.................. ...........Tambako

9-Atropa Belladonna..................Deadly night shade

10-Cestrum nocturnum.................Lady of night.......................Raat ki Rani
FLORAL DIAGRAM

FROM TEXT BOOK (BIO-XI FAMILY SOLANACEAE )


5-FABACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME

* Papilionaceae or Pea family 

HABIT AND HABITAT

Plants are herbs, shrubs or trees. Climbers, aquatic plants or xerophytes. World wide distributed.
VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

1-ROOTS

Tap root, branched bearing tubercle containing nitrogen fixing bacteria.

2- STEM

Herbecious or woodi, erect or climber.

3-LEAF

Simple or commonly compound alternate, stipulate
FLORAL CHARACTERS

1- INFLORESCENCE

Racemose, rarely solitary.

2- FLOWER

Bisexual, irregular, zygomorphic, hypogynous.

3- CALYX

Five sepals, united

4- COROLLA

Five petals, usually free.

Corolla is papilionaceous (Butterfly shaped). In this form the petals are 5, one of them is usually large and clawed. This petal is called standard or “Vexillum” The two lateral ones, which are free are called as “Wings” and two anterior inner most fuse to form a boat shaped structure called the “Keel” or “Carina”.

5- ANDROCIEUM

Stamens (9) +1 i.e 9 fuse to form a round sheath around the pistil while tenth is free.

6-GYNOECIUM

Monocarpellary, ovary unilocular, ovule numerous on marginal placenta.

7-FRUIT

Legume or pod.

8-SEED

EX-albuminous.
FLORAL FORMULA

+ , Q , K(5) , C 1+2+(2) , A(9)+1 , G1
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The family is of considerable importance, as a source of high protein food, oil and forage as well as for ornamental purposes. Chief importance lies in the pulses, belonging to this family. All types of pulses (Dalls) are actually the seeds of this family which are rich in protein.
1- FOOD & FORAGE

* Cicer arietinum (Gram) 

* Pisum sativum (Pea) 

* Lens esculanta (Masure) 

* Phaseolus aureus (Mung) 

* Phaseolus mung (Urad/Mash) 

* Phaseolus vulgaris (kidney bean/Lobia) 

* Medicago sativa alfalfa (Lusan) 

* Vicia 

* Melilotus & Trifolium 

2- FURNITURE & BUILDING PURPOSE

* Butea 

* Dilburgia 

3- OIL EXTRACTION

Arachis hypogea (Peanut/Moongphali)
4- DYES

* Indigofera tinctoria (Neel) 

* Butea monosperma (Yellow dye) 

5-MEDICINAL PURPOSE

* Glycyrrhiza glabra (Cough & cold treatment) 

* Clitoria termatea (Snake bite treatment) 

6- ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

* Lathyrus 

* Lupinus 

* Clitoria 

* Butea 

* Abrus precatorious, used by jewellars as weights called “Ratti”. 

IMPORTANT FAMILY MEMBERS

BOT-NAME...................COMMON NAME....................LOCAL-NAME

1- Lathyrus Odoratus...........Sweet pea......................Matter

2- Arachis Hypogea.............Peanut........................ .Moongphali

3- Cicer Arietinum.............Gram........................ ...Channa

4- Dalbergia Sisso.............Red-wood.......................Shesham

5- Pisum Sativum...............Edible pea

6- Sesbania aegyptica..........Sesbania
FLORAL DIAGRAM

FROM TEXT BOOK BIOLOGY-XI Pg # 191


6-POACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME

GRAMINAE/ GRASS FAMILY
HABIT AND HABITAT

* The species are most numerous in the tropics but they are also abundant in temperate region. 

* This family is monocot (one cotyledon in seed) 

* Mostly annual or perennial herbs or shrubs. 

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

1- ROOTS

Adventitious, fibrous or fascicled.

2- STEM

Cylindrical, Conspicuous nodes and hollow, although solid stems are also found as sugar cane.

3- LEAF

Legulate, alternate leaf sheath mostly open sessile, lamina narrow and ribbon shaped.
FLORAL CHARACTERS

1- INFLORESCENCE

Compound spikes.

2- FLOWER

Sessile, bracteate, incomplete, bisexual or unisexual and zygomorphic.

3- PERIANTH

It is combined structure instead of calyx and corolla. Number 2 or 3 membranous scales called “ Lodicules”

4- ANDROECIUM

Usually 3 stamens, filaments long, free anther versatile.

5- GYNOECIUM

Tricarpellary, syncarpous though only one is functional, unilocular, single ovule, style short 2-3, stigma feather like.

6- FRUIT

Grain or coryposis.

7- SEED

Endospermic, monocotyledonous.
FLORAL FORMULA

+ or O , O or O or O , P2 (lodicules) , A3 or 0 , G1 or 0
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The family poaceae has great importance than any other family of flowering plants.
1- FODDER AND FOOD STUFF

* Triticum indicum 

* Avena sativa 

* Zea mays 

* Oryza sativa 

* Hordeum vulgare 

* Pennisetum typhoideum 

2- SUGAR MAKING

Saccharum officinarum (sugar cane)
3-PAPER MANUFACTURING

Certain species of Grasses
4- VEGETABLES & SOUP DISH

* Sugar cane 

* Bamboo-shoots 

IMPORTANT FAMILY MEMBERS

BOT-NAME..............................COM-NAME.........................LOC-NAME

Triticum Indicum..........................Wheat............ ................Gandum

Avena Sativa..............................Oats

Zea Mays..................................Indian corn......................Makai

Oryza Sativa..............................Rice.......... ...................Chawal

Saccharum Officinarum.....................Sugar cane.......................Ganna

Hordeum Vulgare...........................Barly........... .................Joo

Pennisetum Typhoideum.....................Bajra

Bambusa Arundinacea.......................Bamboo.......... .................Banns

Cymbopogon Jawarancuza....................................... ..............Lemon Grass

Cynodon dactylon.......................................... .................Lawn Grass
FLORAL DIAGRAM

FROM TEXT BOOK BIOLOGY-XI Pg#196)


DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

* After pollination, the tube nucleus of the pollen grain forms pollen tube, while generative nucleus divides into two male (sperm) gametes. 

* When pollen tube reaches the embryo sac through micropyle, one of the male gametes fuses w/t egg cell and forms “oospore (zygote)”,it develops into seed. Another male gamete fuses with definitive nucleus and forms “Endospermic nucleus”, w/c develop into endosperm of seed or food storage tissue of seed. 

* Because two times fertilization occurs so it is called “Double fertilization”. 


THE FLOWERS

The flower is a modified shoot and meant for sexual reproduction. It is collection of four different kinds of floral members, arranged in four separate whorls. The upper two whorls are essential or reproductive whorls whereas lower two are helping or accessory whorls. The flower is born on an axis which consists of two parts the pedicel or stalk of flower and the thalamus is swollen end of the axis on which the floral leaves are inserted. The floral whorls are arranged on the thalamus in a particular order one just above the other. These four whorls are as follows.


CALYX

It is the first or lower most whorl of the flower, the calyx is generally green is colour. Each member of calyx is known as sepal. Sometimes sepals become coloured called petaloid. Such as in gold mohur. The calyx is non essential or accessory part of flower.
FUNCTIONS

1- Protection of floral bud

2- Assimilation when green in colour

3- Attraction when coloured and showy

4- Modified into papus which helps in dispersal

COROLLA

It is the second non essential floral whorl of flower. It is brightly colored. Each member of its known as petal. However there is no differentiation of calyx and corolla in some flowers. It is called perianth.
FUNCTIONS

1- The corolla attracts insects and hence help in pollination.

2- It encloses stamens and carpels.

3- It protect the stamens and carpels from external heat rain and insects attack.


ANDROCIEUM

It is the third essential floral whorl and each member of it is known as stamen. The stamen is a male reproductive body and consists of filament, anther and connective. The anther bears four chambers of pollen sacs, each chamber is filled with granular mass of small cells called pollen grains. Each pollen grain consists of two walls, the outer exine and inner intine.
FUNCTIONS

It is the male reproductive body and hence possess male gametes which take part in reproduction.


GYNOECIUM

It is the fourth essential floral whorl and its component parts are called carpals. The carpel is a female reproductive body, it may be one or more than one, and may be united or free. Each carpel consists of stigma, style and ovary. The stigma is terminal end which receives the pollen grain. It may be smooth or hairy and becomes sticky on maturity, The style is slender projection of ovary, It helps in pollination and later on dries up. The ovary is swollen basal portion, which encloses minute egg like bodies called ovules. The ovule possess egg cells.
FUNCTIONS

The gynoecium is a female reproductive body. It possess the egg cells which take parts in reproduction.


AESTIVATION

It is the arrangement of floral whorls i.e. the sepals or petals in a floral bud, it is of following types:
(A) VALVATE

The members of a whorl lie close to each other and do not overlap e .g Calatropis.
(B) TWISTED

One margin of a floral whorl overlaps that of the next one. It may be clockwise or anti clockwise e.g. China rose.
(C)VEXILLARY

When petals are five, two internal are overlaped on both margins by two petals, these two are overlaped by a single largest posterior petal e.g. Pea bean etc.
(D)IMBRICATE

When one of the sepal or petal is internal and other external and each or remaining one is overlaped on one margin and it overlaps the next one on other margin e.g Gold mohur .

A. Velvate.

B Twisted

C. Vexillary

D. Imtricate.


INSERTION OF FLORAL LEAVES ON THE THALAMUS

The floral leaves are inserted on the thalamus in a particular order, it is of following types:
(A) HYPOGYNOUS

In some flowers the thalamus is convex or conical and ovary occupies the highest position on it. However other floral whorls are inserted below the ovary, such flower is known as hypogynous and ovary as superior. E.g. Mustard.
(B ) PERIGYNOUS

In certain flowers thalamus forms a flattened circular disc due to the fact that sises of thalamus grows up to the same level. The apex of thalamus is in the middle of the disc at which gynoecium develops, whereas at the rim or margin sepals, petals and androecium are inserted. They are round about it and hence are called perigynous, such as in pea. Sometimes the apex of thalamus grows up in conical shape as in raspberry. Whereas in some cases the calyx forms a cup shaped structure called calyx tube such as in wild rose.
(C) EPIGYNOUS

In some flowers the concave receptacle surrounds the ovary and is fused with it. The sepals, petals and stamens apparently arise from the tip of the ovary such ovary is said to be inferior. E.g. Sunflower, apple, guava, pear etc.
IMPORTANT TERMS TO DESCRIBE A FLOWER

COMPLETE :When all the four floral whorls are present.

INCOMPLETE :When any of the whorl is absents.

BISEXUAL :The stamen and carpel both are present.

UNISEXUAL :The flower possess either stamen or carpel.

STAMINATE nly stamens are present (male).

PISTILATE :When flower possess only carpels (female).

NEUTER :The stamens and carpels both are absent.


SYMMETRY

+ACTINOMORPHIC

When a flower can be divided into two equal halves by any vertical section passing through centre.

+ ZYGOMORPHIC

When it can be divided into two similar halves by only one vertical section.

+ IRREGULAR

The flower can not be divided into two similar halves by any vertical plane.
COHESION OF STAMEN

+ MONOADELPHOUS

When filaments are united in a bundle and anthers are free e.g. China rose.

+ DIADELPHOUS

The filaments are united into two bundles and anthers are free e.g. Pea.

+ POLYADELPHOUS

The filaments are united into more than two bundles and anthers are free.

+ SYNGENECIOUS

The anthers are united together and filaments are free e.g. Sunflower.
ADHESION OF STAMENS

+ EPIPETALOUS

The stamens adhere to corolla, wholly or partially by their filaments.

+ GYNANDROUS

When stamens adhere to carpels e.g. Calatropis.
LENGTH OF STAMENS

+DIDYNAMOUS

The stamens are four, two of them short and two long e.g. Nerium.

+TETRADYNAMOUS

The stamens are six but two short and four long e.g. mustard.
GYNOECIUM

+ MONOCARPELLARY

The pistil consists of only one carpel, it is also known as simple pistil e.g. Pea, Bean

+ POLYCARPELLARY

The pistil consists of two or more carpels, it is also known as compound pistil e.g. Rose.

+ SYNCARPOUS

The carpels are united into one ovary e.g. Mustard.
STIGMA

+ CAPITATE

When stigma is rounded and knob like. Bi, tri or Multified: when stigma is branched into two , three or many.

+ FEATHERY

When stigma is feather like.

+ FLATTENED

When sitgma is flat.

+ POINTED

When stigma is pointed.

+ LINEAR

When it is long and narrow.
STYLE

+ TERMINAL

When style arise from top of ovary; such as in Mustard.

+ GYNOBASIC

When it arise between the lobes of the ovary from its base;such as in Salvia.

+ PEDICILLATE

When flower is born on a stalk or pedicel. (STALKED)

+ SESSILE

When stalk is absent

+ BRACTEATE

When flower is developed in the axil of a bract

+ EBRACTEATE

When bract is absent.

+ DIMEROUS

When each floral whorl has two floral leaves (Dicot)

+ TRIMEROUS

When floral whorl has three floral leaves (Monocot)

+ TETRAMEROUS

When each floral whorl has four floral leaves; and so the pentamerous Dicots)
CALYX

+ PETALOID

The calyx having other then green colour.

+ CAMPANULATE

Sepals fused to form bell shaped structure.

+ POLYSEPALOUS

When sepals are free from one another.

+ GAMOSEPALOUS

When sepals are fused or united with one another.
PETALS

+SEPALOID

The petals are green in colour.

+CRUCIFORM

Petals are arranged in form of a cross.

+POLYPETALOUS

When petals are free from one another.

+GAMOPETALOUS

When petals are united with one another.

+PERIANTH

When calyx and corolla can not be distinguished with one other due to similar shape and colour.
PERIANTH

+SEPALOID

When perianth leaves are green.

+POLYPHYLLOUS

When perianth leaves are free from one another.

+GAMOPHYLLOUS

When perianth leaves are fused.

FLORAL FORMULA

The floral formula is represented by various symlols. The symbols used in floral formula are as follows.


SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER

* Zygomorphic = + 

* Actinomorphic = O 

SEXUALITY

* Bisexual = Q+ 

* Unisexual (male) 

* Unisexual (female) 

* Neuter = 

PERIANTH

* Perianth = P 

* Polyphyllous = Pn n=number of perianth leaves. 

* Gamophyllous = (n) “ “ “ 

CALYX

* Epicalyx = Epi K 

* Petals = C 

* Calyx = K 

* Polypetalous = Cn, 

* Polysepalous = Kn, n= number 

* Gamopetalous = C(n) 

* Gamosepalous = K (n) of sepals 

ANDROECIUM

* Androecium = A 

* Androecium free = An n= number of stamens 

* Androecium United = A (n) 

* Epipetalous = C-A 

GYNOECIUM

* Gynoecium = G 

* Apocarpous = Gn 

* Syncarpous = G (n) 

* Ovary inferior = G 

* n= number of carpels 

* Ovary Superior = G 

FLORAL DIAGRAM

The features of flower in flora formula are represented by symbols, while in floral diagram by the diagram of its various floral leaves alongwith actual number and position.

MOTHER AXIS: It is represented by a Dot above the floral diagram. It actually shows the position how a flower is born. The position of it can be seen from upperside. It may be between two adjacent sepals or a single sepal.


PLACENTATION

It is the arrangement of placenta which are cushion like ridges in the ovary, The placenta bear ovules. In simple ovary placentaion is marginal, whereas in compound ovary it may be parietal, axile, free central, basal and superficial.
(A) MARGINAL

In a simple ovary or monocarpellary pistil, the ovules are arranged along the fused margins, these margins forms a cushion like tissue called placenta along the ventral suture on the inner surface of ovary wall e.g. Pea, Gram, Bean, etc.
(B) PARIETAL

In a compound syncarpous and unilocular ovary, the fused margins of the carpals swells up to form placentas, to which ovules are attached. The placentas lie along the wall of ovary and their number indicates the number of carpels forming ovary e.g. cucumber, Melon; etc.
(C) AXILE

In a polycarpellary syncarpous pistil and multilocular ovary, each carpel is folded along its mid-rib and meets in the centre of the ovary. The ovules are attached to this central axis e.g. Tomato, China rose, etc.
(D) FREE CENTRAL

In a compound and unilocular ovary the ovules are situated all around the central axis, which arise from the thalamus and not fused with the margins of the carpels. However in some plants the axile placentation becomes free central due to breaking down of septa e.g. Pink (Diantus)
(E) BASAL

In a unilocular ovary the placentas develops directly on the thalamus and bears single ovule at the base of ovary e.g. Sunflower, Cosmos etc.
(F) SUPERFICIAL

In a multilocular ovary, the ovules are not on the margins of the carpels; but over the whole inner surface of the partition walls e.g. Waterlily.


TYPES OF PLACENTATION

1.FOR SIMPLE OVARY

Only one type, MARGINAL.

2.FOR COMPOUND OVARY

I- Exile

II- Central

III- Parietal

IV- Basal

V- Superficial.
1. MARGINAL PLACENTATION

In marginal placentation, the ovary is one chambered and the placenta develops along the junction of the two margins of the carpel, called the ventral suture.

EXAMPLES

Pea, wild pea, gram, gold mohr, and cassia are common examples.
2. AXILE PLACENTATION

In the axile placentation the ovary is two to many chambered and the placenta bearing the ovules develop from the central axis e.g. Potato, Tomato, Petunia, China rose etc.
3. CENTRAL PLACENTATION

In this case the septa in the young ovary soon break down so that the ovary becomes one-chambered and the placenta develops all round the central axis e.g. Dianthus, Saponaria etc.
4. PARIETAL PLACENTATION

The ovary is one chambered and placenta develops on the inner wall of the ovary e.g. papaw, orchids etc.
5. BASAL PLACENTATION

The ovary is unilocular and placenta develops directly on the thalamus e.g. sunflower, cosmos etc.
6. SUPERFICIAL PLACENTATION

The ovary is multilocular, carpels are numerous and placenta develops all round the inner surface of the partition walls as in waterlily.


INFLORESCENCE

The branch system of the floral region bearing a group of flowers is called INFLORESCENCE. The term inflorescence refers to the arrangement of flowers on plant.
TYPES OF INFLORESCENCE

The flowers may be solitary or grouped into clusters, Such clusters vary in shape and arrangement. On the basis of arrangement of flowers, inflorescence is classified into
1-RECEMOSE

1- In this case, the main axis of inflorescence does not end in a flower.

2- Main axis continues to grow and gives off flowers laterally.

3- The lower or outer flowers are always older and open earlier than the upper or inner ones.

4- Order of opening of flowers is called centripetal.

EXAMPLES

Mustard, Gold mohr, Mulberry, birch etc.
KINDS OF RECEMOSE INFLORESCENCE

Recemose inflorescence has following main types on the basis of nature and shape of the peduncle:
I- PEDUNCLE ELONGATED

It is further subdivided into following types;
1. RECEME

The main axis in this case is elongated and it bears laterally a number of flowers which are all stalk e.g. radish, mustard, dwarf gold mohur etc.
2. SPIKE

In this case the flowers are sessile e.g. Adhatoda, Achyrnthes etc.
3. CATKIN

This is a spike with a long and pendulous axis which bears unisexual flowers e.g. Musberry, Acalypha, Birch and Oak etc.
4. SPADIX

This is also a spike with a fleshy axis which is enclosed by one or more large bracts called spathes e.g. Banana, Palms etc.
II- PEDUNCLE SHORTENED

It is further divided into following types;
1. CORYMB

Here the main axis is comparatively short, and the lower flowers have much longer stalk than the upper ones. Hence all the flowers are brought more or less to the same level e.g. candytuft, wall flowers etc.
2. UMBEL

Here the primary axis is short and it bears at its tips a group of flowers which have pedicles of more or less equal length so that the flowers are seen to spread out from a common point. In the umbel there is always a whorl of bracts forming an involucre, and each flower develops from the axil of a bract, e.g. Carrycumin, Coriander etc.
III- PEDUNCLE FLATTENED

The best example is seen in sunflower family, here the inflorescence is called the head as the capitulum.

HEAD OR CAPITULUM

1. A dense cluster of sessile or sub-sessile flowers, on a compound receptacle is called capitulum.

2. Main axis is almost flat, bearing sessile flowers.

3. Outer flowers are older and open earlier.

4. The florets are commonly of two types

I- RAY FLORETS

II- DESC FLORETS

EXAMPLES

Capitulum is characteristic feature of sunflower family e.g. sunflower, marigold; zinnia, cosmos etc.
IV- SPIKELET INFLORESCENCE

It is a kind of racemose inflorescence. There are three bracts at its base called glumes. The lower two without flowers are called empty glumes. The third glume has flower in its axil and called Lemma. Just opposite to lemma, there is small bractcole called Palea. Flowers are covered by their respective lemma and palea. This type of inflorescence is characteristic feature of family Poaceae (Grass Family).
2-CYMOSE

1- Here the main axis ends in a flower and similarly the lateral axis also ends in a flower.

2- The growth of each axis is checked due to presence of flower on its tip.

3- The terminal flowers are always older and open earlier than the lateral ones.

4- The order of opening of flowers is centrifugal.

EXAMPLES

Jasmine, Teak, Night Jasmine, Ixora.
KIND OF CYMOSE INFLORESCENCE
I- UNIPAROUS (MONOCHASIAL) CYME

Main axis soon ends into a flower and produces only one lateral branch at a time ending in a flower. The succeeding lateral branches again follow the same mode of producing flowers. If the succeeding branches are produced on alternate side, it is called Scorpiold cyme (cotton, forget-me-not). Whereas, if the succeeding branches are produced on same side, it is called Helicoid (sundew).
II- BIPAROUS (DICHASIAL) CYME

Main axis soon terminate into a flower and produces two flowers. This mode is followed by each succeeding flowers (Pink, Night- Jasmine).


POLLINATION

It is the process of transference of pollen grains to the stigma of the flower.
TYPES OF POLLINATION

Pollination is of two types.

1- Self pollination or Autogamy.

2- Cross Pollination or Allogamy.
(A)SELF POLLINATION

It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.
METHODS OF SELF POLLINATION

In self pollination, only one flower is concerned to produce the offspring. Irrespective whether the flower is unisexual or bisexual self pollination can take place by two methods
I-HOMOGAMY

In homogamy the anther and the stigma of a unisexual flower mature at the same time. In rare cases it may takes place by insects or wind.
II- CLEISTOGAMY

In cleistogamy the flower never open. They remain closed and the pollination takes place in the closed flower such as in pansy (viola), balsam (impatiens), oxalis, etc.
B)CROSS POLLINATION

It is transfer of pollen grain from the flower of one plant to the stigma of flower of another plant of the same species.
METHODS OF CROSS POLLINATION

It takes place by external agencies. These agents are insects, animals, birds, wind and water.
I- ENTOMYPHILY

The pollination takes place by insects. It is of general occurrence in plants.
II ANEMOPHILY

The pollination is brought about by wind.
III HYDROPHILY

The pollination takes place in aquatic plants particularly the submerged ones, through the medium of water e.g. Hydrilla and vallisneria
IV ZOOPHILY

The pollination is carried out by birds, squirrels, snails etc. Examples are Bombax and Erythrina.

INTRODUCTION

* Includes all eukaryotic multicellular and chlorophyllous living organisms, which have cell wall made up of true cellulose. 

* Majority of members are autotrophic but few are parasite e.g.: “Cuscuta” 

* They have localized growth, regions of growth lying primarily at the extremities that is root and stem apices. 

CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

Kingdom planatae is divided into tow sub-kingdom on the basis of presence or absence of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem).

A - SUB-DIVISION - BRYOPHYTES (NON-VASCULAR)

* Class Hepatica (Liverworts) 

* Class Musci (Mosses) 

* Class Anthroccrota (Hornworts) 

B- SUB-DIVISION - TRACHEOPHYTES

* Class Psilopsida (Psilopsids) 

* Class Lycopsida (Club Mosses) 

* Class Sphenopsida (Horse Tails) 

* Class Pteropsida (Ferns) 

* ClassSpermopsida (Seed Plants) 


SUB –DIVISION BRYOPHYTA (AMPHIBIAN PLANTS) OR (NON-VASCULAR PLANTS)

* Absence of lignin-fortified tissue to support tall plants on land. 

* Members of this sub-division usually sprawl horizontally as mats over a large surface. 

* Always have a low profile (1-2cm-20cm tall). 

Regular heteromorphic alternation of generation is present w/t gametophytes dominancy (Gametophytes large and long lived).

* Sporophyte stage of bryophytes is generally smaller and shorter lived, and it depends on gametophyte for water and nutrients. 

* The diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores via meiosis in a structure called “sporangium” 

* The tiny, spores, protected by sporopollenim, disperse and give rise to new gametophytes. 

* All members of bryophytes need water to reproduce. 

* Gametes produce within reproductive structures “Gametangia” (Male-Antheridia and Female-Archer-gonium) 

* Antheridium produces flagellated sperm while female archegonium contains one egg (ovum). 

* Fertilization occurs w/t in the archegonium 

* Zygote develops into an embryo within the protective jacket of Archegonium. 

* Windblown spores disperse the speies. 

* All bryophytes belong to Silurian/Devonian period (345-395Million yrs. Ago.) 

ADAPTATION OF BRYOPHYTES TO LAND HABITAT

All Bryophytes show amphibious form of land plants. Following are main adaptations exhibited by them.

a. Rhizoid for water absorption

b. Conservation of water

c. Absorption of CO 2

d. Heterogamy

e. Protection of reproductive cells

f. Formation of embryos
CLASSES OF BRYOPHYTES
1-MUSCI (MOSSES)

* Plants grow in a tight pack, in the form of mat, in order to hold one another up. 

* Mat of moss possess spongy quality and enables it to absorb and retain water. 

* Rhizoids are elongated cells or cellular filaments of mats which grip the substratum. 

* Photosynthesis occurs in upper part of the plant w/c has many small stem like and leaf like appendages. E.g Funaria. 

2-HEPATICAE (LIVERWORTS)

* Usually present in tropical areas 

* Plant body is divided into lobes somewhat of the lobed liver, of an animal. 

* These plants are less fimiliar than Mosses. 

* E.g Marchantia 

3- ANTHROCERATAE:- (HORNWORTS)

* These plants resemble w/t liverworts, but are differentiated by their sporophytes plants. 

* Sporophyte are elongated capsules that grow like horn from mat like gametophyte. 

* Sporophyte has stomata and chloroplast, performs photosynthesis 

* Sporophyte plant can survive even often the death of gametophyte due to presence of Meristem. 

* Meristem is a specialized tissue, which keeps on adding new cells in sporophyte plant. 

* Hornworts are the most advanced members of bryophytes. 

* E.g Arthroceros 


SUB-DIVISION TRACHEOPHYTA (VASCULAR PLANTS)

Main characters are as follow,

* Conducting vessels Xylem and Phloem are present in plant body. 

* A protective layer of sterile “Jacket” cells around reproductive organs are present. 

* Multicellular embryos retained within the archegonia. 

* On aerial parts protective covering “Cuticles” is present w/c prevents excessive loss of water during hot climate. 

* In life cycle Sporophyte stage is dominant. 

CLASSES OF TRACHEOPHYTES
1-PSILOPSIDA

* These are the fossil representatives of the vascular plants, belonging to “Silurain period” and “Devonian Period” 

* Sporophytes are simple dichotomously branching plants. 

* True leaves and true roots absent. 

* Underground stems that contain unicellular rhizoid similar to root hairs. 

* The aerial stems are green and carry out photosynthesis. 

* Lacking secondary growth due to absence of “Cambium” 

* Reproductive structure “Sporangia” develop at the tips of some of the aerial branches. 

* Meiosis produces haploid spores, within the sporangia. 

* E.g. Rhynia, Psilotum Temesipteris 

A) RHYNIA (FIRST VASCULAR PLANT)

* One of the most primitive vascular plant 

* It is an extinct genus, was named often the village “Rhynia of Scotland where the first fossils of Rhynia were discovered. 

* It belongs to Devonian period, which started about 400 million years ago. 

* The fossils of this plant are so well preserved that the stomata are still intact. 

STRUCTURE

* The plant body (Sporophyte) was simple. 

* It consisted of slender, dichotomously branched creeping rhizome, bearing erect, dichotomously branched aerial stem. 

* Instead of roots, rhizoids were given out from rhizome. 

* The aerial branches were leaf-less having terminal fusiform naked sporangia. 

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE

* The internal structure of branches show a solid central core of vascular tissues surrounded by Cortex. 

* The outer most layer is Epidermis having stomata. 

* The vascular tissue is differentiated into centrally placed xylem and surrounded phloem 

(FIGURE 9.06(a) Reconstruction of Rhunia) TEXT BOOK BIO-XI Pg# 170
B) PSILOTUM AND TEMESIPTERIS (LIVING SPECIES OF PSILOPSIDA)

* Sporophyte plant produce spores, which give rise to minute subterranean gametophytes. 

* Each gametophyte bears both female reproductive organ Archegonia and male reproductive organ Antheridia w/c produce both egg and sperm respectively. 

* As a result of fertilization a diploid zygote is formed which develops into sporophyte plant. 

* Sporophyte stage of life cycle is dominant, but haploid gametoplyte stage is still relatively large. 

EVOLUTION OF LEAF

The leaf is the most important organ of a green plant because of its photosynthetic activity. Leaves are of tow types

1. Single veined leaves- Contain only one vein

2. Poly veined leaves- Contain two or more veins

1- EVOLUTION OF SINGLE-VEINED LEAF

* It is assuming that a thorn like out growth emerged on the surface of the naked stem. 

* With an increase in size of the leaf, the vascular tissues were also formed for the supply of water and support to the leaf. 

* Another possibility is that a single veined leaf originated by a reduction in size of a part of the leafless branching system of the primitive vascular plants. 

- EVOLUTION OF POLY-VEINED LEAF

* These are the evolutionary modifications of the forked branching in the primitive plants. 

* The first step in the evolution of this leaf was the restriction of forked branches to a single plane. 

* The branching system become flat. 

* The next step in the evolution was filling the space b/w the branching and the vascular tissues. 

* The leaf so formed looked like the webfoot of a duck. 

(Fig#9.7-9.8From Text. Book)

2-LYCOPSIDA(THE CLUB MOSSES)

* These plants belong to middle Devonian and carboniferous periods. 

* They were very large trees that formed the earth’s first forests. 

* Only five living genera of this group are present. 

* Two members, selaginella and lycopodium are common in many areas of Pakistan 

* These plants have true branched underground roots. 

* True leaves also present w/c have arisen as simple scale like outgrowth (emergence) from the outer tissues of the stem. 

* Specialized reproductive leaves bearing sporangia on their surfaces, are present, such type of leaves are known as “Sporophylls”. 

* In some members, the sporophylls are collected on a short length of stem and form cone like structure “Strobilus”. 

* The cone is rather club-shaped; hence name “Club-Mosses” for the lycopsids. 

* Gametophytes plant may be homosporous or heterosporous . 

A) HOMOSPOROUS GAMETOPHYTES

* Spores produced by sporophyte plant are all alike, and each give rise to a gametophytes that bear both archegonia (female reproductive structure) and antheridia (male reproductive structure) 

* Example Lycopodium (Running pine or ground pine) 

B) HETEROSPOROUS GAMETOPHYTES

* Sporophyte (2n) plant produces two types of sporangia, which produced different kinds of spores. 

* One type of sporangium produces very large spores called “Megaspores,” which develop in female gametophytes bearing archegonia. 

* Other type of sporangium produces small spores called “Microspores, which develop into male gametophytes bearing antheridia. 

* That’s mean sexes are separate in the gametophytes generation (Heterosporous). 

* Example: Selaginella. 

EVOLUTION OF SEED

Seeds are evolved from primitive spores.

STEPS OF EVOLUTION

1. PRIMITIVE SPORES

All spores of specie are nearly identical in size, structure and function.

2. HETEROSPORES

* There are many vascular plants that form two kinds of spores, these plants are said to be “Heterosporous” and spores are called “Heterospores.” 

* These spores on germination give rise to two different types of plants. 

A) MALE SPORE: It produces sperm forming gametophyte plant.

B) FEMALE SPORE: It grows into egg forming gametophyte.

3. PROTECTION OF HETEROSPORES

* The two different kinds of spores are formed in two different kinds of sporangia. 

* Various enveloping structures develop in order to protect these spores. 

* Certain fern like plants first developed seed like structures, each of their sporangia, containing one or more female spores, was surrounded by little branch like out growth structure forming “Integument.” 

4. PERSISTANCE OF FEMALE SPORES

* Instead of being shed from the sporangium, the female spores are retained and protected inside the integument. 

* The female spore develops into a tiny female gametophyte protected by the integuments. 

5. FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF SEED

* Seed is formed as the result of fertilization of male spore with this protected female spore. 

* Immature seed is called “Ovule.” 

* Ovule is protected by integuments and it contains great quantities of food. 

* Ovule not only protects the female gametophyte from the environment but also provides food for the new off springs that is produced when the seed matures and germinate. The development of seed has given the vascular plants better adaptations to their environment. 


3. SPHENOPSIDA (THE HORSE TAILS)

* These plants belong to late Devonian and Carboniferous period. 

* Only one living member “Equisetum” commonly called “Horse-tail” exists today. 

* Ancient sphenopsids were large trees but now most of these are small (Less than one meter). 

* Coal deposits of today was formed from the dead bodies of those plants. 

* These plants possess true roots, stems and leaves. 

* Stems are hollow and are jointed, whorls of leaves occur at each joint. 

* Secondary growth absent, because modern species do not possess cambium. 

* Spore are born in terminal cones (Strobili) and all are alike (i.e. plants are homosporous) and give rise to small gametophytes that bear both archegonia and antheridia (i.e. the sexes are not separate). 


4. PTEROPSIDA (THE FERNS)

* These plants belong to Devonian and Carboneferous Period and then decline in Paleozoid Period. 

* They are very well developed plants having vascular system with true roots, stem and leaves. 

* Leaves are probably arisen from flattened web branched stems. They are large and provide much greater surface area for photosynthesis. 

* Leaves of Ferns are sometimes simple, but more often they are compound, being divided into numerous leaflets. 

* In most modern ferns of temperate regions, the stems are prostrate on or in the soil, and the large leaves are only part normally seen. 

SPOROPHYTIC STAGE

* The large leafy plant (fern) is diploid sporophytic phase. 

* Spores are produced in sporangia (Reproductive structure) located in clusters on the underside of some modified leaves “Sporophyll.” 

* Most modern ferns are homosporous i.e. all these spores are alike. 

* Vascular sporophytes can live in drier places and grow bigger. 

GAMETOPHYTE STAGE

* After germination, the spores develop into gametophytes that bear both archegonia and antheridia. 

* These gametophytes are tiny (less than one centimeter wide), thin and often more or less heart-shaped. 

* Free-living, non-vascularized gametophytes can survive only in moist places, their sperms are flagellated and water is required for fertilization.Young sporophyte develops directly from the zygote without passing through any protected seed like stage. 

(LIFE CYCLE OF FERN-TEXT BOOK PAGE # 166 NEW ADDITION)

ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

* In Kingdom Plantae, life cycle of many plants is completed in two stages or generations known as Gametophyte and Sporophyte. 

* The two generations normally differ from each other in morphology, reproduction and number of chromosomes. 

* The gametophyte is haploid and reproduces sexually by forming the gametes, while the sporophyte is diploid and reproduces a-sexually by forming the spores. 

* The two generations regularly alternate with each other and therefore, the phenomenon is called “Alternation of generation” (Heteromorphic). 

* In Bryophytes, the main plant itself is the Gametophyte while the sporophyte is reduced. 

* In Tracheophytes, the main plant is “Sporophyte” and the “Gametophyte” is reduced. 


5. SPERMOSIDA (THE SEED PLANTS)

* First appeared in late Devonian and became dominant in Carboniferous Period. 

* Gametophyte stage is even more reduced than in the ferns, and non-photosynthetic or free-living. 

* The sperms of most modern species are not independent free-swimming flagellated cells. 

* Young embryo, is enclosed within a seed coat and can remain dormant for long periods. 

* Spermosida can be divided into two main sub-groups, which are as follows: 

i) Gymnosperms

ii) Angiosperms
I) GYMNOSPERM

* These plants have naked seed because ovules are not covered by ovary i.e. fruit is absent. 

* Sub-divisions of Gymnosperms are 

a) Cycads

b) Gnetae

c) Ginkgo

d) Conifers

A) CYCADS'

* They have arisen from the seed ferns. 

* These plants appeared in “Permian Period” and Mesozoic Period and declined in Cretaceous Period. 

* They possessed large palm like leaves with short height stems. 

* Living species commonly found in tropical regions and also known as “Sago Palms.” 

* Nine living genera with over a hundred species exist today. 

* Cycads and its relatives. 

B) GINKGOAE'

* Mostly contains extinct species, only one living specie, “the Ginkgo” which is also known as “Maiden Hair Tree.” 

* Ginkgo often planted as lawn tree. 

* E.g: Ginkgo Biloba. 

C) CONIFERS

* Most familiar and best-known group of gymnosperms. 

* Leaves are small evergreen needles or scales with an internal arrangement of tissues. 

* Reproductive organs are cone like modified leaves. 

* E.g: Pinus. 


PINUS

This plant belongs to Gymnosperms. It includes about 90 species.

HABIT AND HABITAT

* It is distributed world-wide mostly in northern hemisphere. 30 species are found in the Himalayas. Some are reported in the planes of Punjab. 

MORPHOLOGY

* The pinus plant belongs to the “Sporophytic Phase.” 

* It is a tall tree, pyramidal in form and gives a conical appearance and therefore commonly grouped under “Conifers.” 

* It is well differentiated into stem, root and leaves. 

STEM

It is erect, cylindrical, solid and covered with thick, rough and brownish bark. The branches are dimorphic,

* Branches of unlimited growth or long shoot. 

* Branches of limited growth or dwarf shoot. 

ROOTS

Underground root system is formed by “Tap Roots” which disappear early and only lateral roots persist later on.
LEAVES

It bears two types of leaves (dimorphic condition)

a) Scale leaves

b) Foliage leaves
A) SCALE LEAVES

* Thin, membranous small scale like structures. 

* Provide protection and do not help in photosynthesis. 

B) FOLIAGE LEAVES

* Only develop on dwarf shoots. 

* Number of foliage leaves is fixed for particular specie. 

* Each leave is needle shaped, simple green therefore also known as “Needles.”
* They have smooth surface and are evergreen and persistent. 


LIFE CYCLE OF PINUS

* The adult plant of Pinus represents the “Sporophytic Phase” of life cycle. 

* The sporophytic plant body of pinus reproduces asexually by means of spores and after passing through “Gametophytic Phase” of the life cycle again produce Sporophytic plant, showing distinct Alternation of Generation. 

1. SPOROPHYTIC PHASE

* The sporophytic plants of Pinus are mostly monoecious i.e. male and female cones are found on same plant. 

* Special reproductive organs called “Cones,” developed on it. 

A) MALE CONE OR O-STROBILUS

* The male cones occur in clusters near the end of long branches at the place of dwarf shoot. (Dwarf shoots are replaced by male cone). 

* Each male cone is simple ovoid structure 3-4 cm in length. 

* It has got single centrally located cone axis around which are arranged spirally, many scaly microsporophylls (60-135). 

* Each microsporophyll has an expanded triangular central part and a stalk like base. 

* Each microsporangium, which is born on the lower side bears numerous “Pollen grain mother cells.” 

* When the microsporangium matures, on its lower side a horizontal slit is formed through which numerous Pollen grains are liberated and dispersed by wind. 

* Each pollen grain is winged structure and yellow in colour. 

B) FEMALE CONE OR O-STROBILUS

* The female cones are developed laterally in the axis of scale leaves. 

* The female cones are much bigger, woody, dry and hard structure. 

* The young female cone is reddish green structure. Each female cone consists of a central axis to which are attached the “Megasporophyll.” 

* Each megasporophyll on its surface has two ovules. 

* Each ovule is orthosporous and consists of a central mass of tissue, surrounded by a single integument, made up of 3 layers. 

* The integument bears a wide gap, the microphyle. 

* Within the megasporangium, megaspore mother cells are present, which undergoes reduction division to produce a “Megaspore.” 

* Only one megaspore is functional, however the other three degenerate. 

2. GAMETOPHYTE PHASE

* The spores are the units of gametophytic phase of life cycle. 

* In case of Pinus the spores are of two types, microspores and megaspores. 

A) MALE GAMETOPHYTES

* Microspore is a unit of male gametophyte. 

* Each microspore or pollen grain is a unicellular body, covered with an outer layer, “Exine,” thick and heavily culticularized, while the inner layer, the “Intine” is very thin. 

* The Exine forms the balloon shaped wings on either side, which help in pollination. 

* The microspore is at this, four celled stage (consisting of one generative cell and two prothalial cells and a tube cell). 

B) FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE

* The Megaspore is the first cell of female gametophyte. 

* The functional megaspore increases in size and forms a complete cellular female gametophyte, also known as “Endosperm.” 

* The “Archegonia” are formed towards micropylar side. 

* The cells of the endosperm or Archegonia initial cell divides and forms the central cell. 

* The central cell forms the venter canal cell and a large egg cell. 


POLLINATION

In case of Pinus, Pollination is effected by wind (Anemophyllous).
FERTILIZATION

1. The pollen grains reach the apex of the Archegonium.

2. The pollen tube carrying the two male gametes and the tube nuclei comes in contact with the archegonium.

3. The tip ruptures, discharging its contents into the egg.

4. One of the male gamete fuses with the egg nucleus and unites forming the oospore or zygote.

5. The second male gamete along with the tube and tube nuclei disintegrate.
PINUS SEED

* Fertilized ovules get transformed into seeds. 

* Seeds are small elongated and winged. 

GERMINATION OF SEED

The seed undergoes into a condition of dormancy when the conditions are favourable, the seed absorbs moisture and the embryo resume growth.


STRUCTURE OF OVULE

* Ovules are female part of flower, form seed after fertilization. 

* Microscopic study of an ovule reveals following structural features of an ovule. 

1. FUNICLE

It is slender stalk of ovule through which it attaches to the placenta.
2. HILUM

It is the point of attachment of the body of the ovule to its funicle.
3. RAPHE

In the inverted ovule, the funicle continues beyond the hilum along side of the body of the ovule forming a sort of ridge, which is called the “Raphe.”
4. CHALAZA

The distal end of the raphe, which is the junction of integuments and the nucellus is called the “Chalaza.”
5. NUCELLUS

It is the main body of ovule.
6. INTEGUMENTS

Nucellus is surrounded by two coats called the “Integuments.”
7. MICROPYLE

It is the small opening at the apex of integuments.
8. EMBRYO-SAC

It is a large, oval cell lying embedded in the nucellus towards the micropyle end. It is the most important part of the ovule as it bears the embryo. It is further developed, and in the mature embryo sac following cells can be seen:
A) EGG APPARATUS

* It is the group of three cells lying towads the micropyle. 

* One cell of the group is the female gamete, the ovum/egg, and the other two are called “Synergids.” 

* The ovum or egg-cell on fertilization gives the embryo, synergids get disorganized soon after fertilization. 

B) ANTIPODAL CELLS

This is the group of three cells lying at the opposite end of egg apparatus. These have no definite function.
C) DEFINITIVE NUCLEUS

In the middle of the embryo-sac there is a distinct nucleus known as a definitive nucleus, which is the fused product of the two polar nuclei.


STRUCTURE OF POLLEN GRAIN

* Pollen grains are male part of flowers, and are contained in the “Pollen-Sac.” 

* They are very small in size, usually varying from 10 to 200 μm. 

* Microscopic study of a pollen grain shows following features: 

1. EXINE

* It is the outer coat of the pollen grain. 

* It is tough, cutinized layer, which is often provided with spinous out growths or markings of different patterns, sometimes smooth. 

* It has one or more weak slits or pores called “Germopores.” 

2. INTINE

* It is the inner coat of the pollen grain. 

* It is thin, delicate, cellulose layer lying internal to the exine. 

* During fertilization in time grows to form pollen-tube. 

3. INTERNAL STRUCTURE

* Each pollen grain contains a bit of cytoplasm on a nucleus. 

* During germination of pollen grain nucleus further divides to form a “Tube Nucleus,” and a smaller one the “Generative Nucleus.” 

* The generative nucleus soon divides into two male gametes.

INDEX

* 1 (1) PHYLUM PORIFERA
* 2 (2) PHYLUM CNIDARIA
* 3 (3) PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
* 4 (4) PHYLUM ASCHELMINTHES (NEMATODA – ROUND WORMS)
* 5 (5) PHYLUM ANNELIDA (SEGMENTED WORMS)
* 6 (6) PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (SOFT BODIED ANIMAL)
* 7 (7) PHYLUM ARTHROPODA ( JOINTED LEGS)
* 8 (8) PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (ANIMAL WITH SPINY SKIN)
* 9 (9) PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA (ANIMAL WITH HALF NOTOCHORD)
* 10 (10) PHYLUM CHORDATA
* 11 GROUP ACRANIATA
* 12 GROUP CRANIATA OR VERTEBRATA
* 13 1. SUPER - CLASS PICSES (FISHES)
* 14 2. SUPER CLASS TETRAPODA
* 15 1. CLASS AMPHIBIA
* 16 2. CLASS REPTILIA
* 17 3. CLASS AVES (BIRDS)
* 18 4. CLASS MAMMALIA

(1) PHYLUM PORIFERA

* Porous body 

* CaCO3 Silica Skeleton 

* Asymmetrical 

* Amphiblastula larva 

* Diffuse cellular organization 

* Spongocoel body cavity 


(2) PHYLUM CNIDARIA

* Radially symmetrical 

* Body cavity “Coelentron” 

* Pnedoblast – Defensive cells 

* Diploblast (Ecto + Endoderm) 

* Middle non-cellular layer “Mesoglea” 

* Larva – Planula Larva 

* Morphologically 

a- Medusa = Umbrella like

b- Polyp = Rod shaped


(3) PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES

* Flatworms 

* Totally Parasite 

* Flat or Ribbon shaped 

* Excretory organs – Proto nephridia (Flame cells) 

* Aeoelomate (Absence of body cavity) 

* It is the first phylum containing triplo blastic animals 

* Usually Hermaphrodites 

* Planaria is the only free living member 

* High fertility rate 

* Bilaterally Symmetrical 


(4) PHYLUM ASCHELMINTHES (NEMATODA – ROUND WORMS)

* Totally parasitic including 50 human parasite 

* Bilaterally symmetrical with cylindrical body 

* Two openings (Mouth & Anus) 

* Psudocoelomates 

* Common diseases – Ascariasis, filiariasis (elephantiasis), hook worm infection. 


(5) PHYLUM ANNELIDA (SEGMENTED WORMS)

* Metamers (External segmentation) 

* Septae (Internal segmentation) 

* Setae (Locomotary organs) or cheata 

* Digestive, excretory, nervous, reproductive system well developed. 

* Respiration through diffusion 

* Blood is red with a closed type of circulatory system (with many pulsatile hearts) 


CLASS POLYCHEATA

* Setae with Parapodia 

* Separate sexes 

* Sabella (Peacock worm), Nereis (Clam worm) 


CLASS OLIGOCHEATA

* Setae without Parapodia 

* Pheretima (Earth worm) 


CLASS HIRUNDINIA (LEACHES)

* Free living, Ecto or Endo parasite 

* Contains a Enzyme hirudin which prevents blood clotting 


(6) PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (SOFT BODIED ANIMAL)

* Second largest phylum 

* Largest invertebrate – Gram squlds 

* External hard covering calcium carbonate shell 

* A grinding structure radula is present in the buccal cavity 

* Thin membraneous covering of the body – mantle 

* Respiration through gills 

* Locomotary organ a mascular foot 

* Larva – Trocophore larva 

CLASS GASTROPODA

A phenomenon torsion is present in which the animal body rotates at the angle of 180˚

Example: Pila


CLASS BIVALVIA

* Second largest class of mollusca 

* Shell consist of two parts and attached with eachother by hinge joint 

* Common examples: Unio, mytilus and pearl oysters 


CLASS CEPHALOPODA

* All members are marine 

* Locomotary organ foot transformed into suckers which bears tentacles and arms 

* Example: Sepia (cuttle fish), loligo (squids), octopus (devil fish) 

* Shell is absent in octopus 


(7) PHYLUM ARTHROPODA ( JOINTED LEGS)

* Largest phylum 

* One million species 

* Metamerically segmented animals 

* Blood filled cavity hoemocoel is present 

* Blood without haemoglobin (white) 

* Respiration: Gills, Trachea or Book lungs 

* Excretory organs malphigian tubules 

* Nervous system well developed 

* Compound erges with sharp vision 

* Metamorphosis = developmental changes which transforms a larva into its developed adult form 

* Incomplete metamorphosis = egg → nymph → adult e.g. cockroach 

* Complete metamorphosis = ® egg ® larva ® pupa ® adult e.g. Butterfly, common, housefly and mosquito 

* Moulting (ecdysis) 

* Changing over of old exoskeleton and formation of a new one 

* Apiculture => Farming of honey bees 

* Sericulture => Farming of silk worms 


CLASS MEROSTOMATA

Limulus (king crab)


CLASS ARCHINIDA (SPIDER LIKE)

* Group of Spiders & Scorpions 

* Respiration through book lungs 

* Four pair of walking legs 


CLASS CRUSTACEA

* Class of prawns, shrimps, lobsters, crabs 

* Two pairs of antenae, one pair of mandible and two pair of maxilla 

* Exoskeleton a large plate of carapase 

* Sacculina is the only parasitic member 


CLASS MYRIAPODA

* Class of millipedes and centipedes 

* Body is divided into similar multiple segments 


CLASS INSECTA OR HEXAPODA

* Largest class (eight lakhs & 50,000 members) 

* Study of insects is called entomology 

* Three pairs of walking legs 

* Pterygota (insects with wings) 

* Apterygota (insects without wings) 

* Social insects: Ants, termites, honey bees 


(8) PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (ANIMAL WITH SPINY SKIN)

* Marine animals 

* Radially symmetrical 

* Pentamerous body 

* Water vascular system is present 

* Locomotary organs are tube feets = External openings of the water vascular system 

* Exoskeleton is made up of calcarious plates in the form of spines 

* Power of regemeration is very great 

* Phylum echinodermata, hemichordata & chordate posses common ancestor 

* Bipinnaria larva is present 

* Common e.g. Sea Star (Star fish, Brittle star, Sea dollar, Sea urchins, Sea cucumbers. 


(9) PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA (ANIMAL WITH HALF NOTOCHORD)

* Notochord in future = Vertebral column + Skull 

* Dorsal nerve cord = Brain and Spinal cord 

* Pharengeal gill slits <-->Aquatic animals = gills 

* -> Terrestrial = Internal neck structures 

* Only 90 species are present 

* Larva is tornaria larva 

* Open circulatory system 


(10) PHYLUM CHORDATA
GROUP ACRANIATA

Brain without any covering or skull


SUB-PHYLUM UROCHORDATA

* Also known as tunicates 

* Body is enclosed in a sac tunic 

* Only embryonical stages show chordate characters 


SUB-PHYLUM CEPHALO CHORDATA

Embryonic as well as adult both forms show typical chordate characters
GROUP CRANIATA OR VERTEBRATA

Brain and spinal cord is enclosed in a hard covering skull & vertebral column respectively


SUB-PHYLUM AGNATHA (ANIMALS WITHOUT JAWS)

* Also known as cyclostomes or jawless fishes 

* Totally parasitic 

* Teeth are present in the form of rings 

* Common e.g. Hag fishes, lamprey 


SUB–PHYLUM GNATHOSTOMATA (ANIMAL WITH JAWS)

* Teeth may be present or absent 

* Amphibians and bird lack teeth 

* Fishes, reptiles, mammals do have teeth 


1. SUPER - CLASS PICSES (FISHES)

Study of fish is known as echthylogy


SUB – CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES (CARTILAGENOUS FISHES)

* Endo skeleton is cartilaginous (soft boned) 

* Exoskeleton – Placoid scales 

* Fins are heterocircle (different size and shaped) 

* Gills without any covering 

* Common example (Sharks, Squids, torpedo, electric ray) 

* Scolidoen (dog fish) – Small Shark 


SUB - CLASS OSTEOCHYTHES (BONY FISHES)

* Exoskeleton cycloid or ctenoid scales 

* Operculum is present (covering of gills) 

* Fins are homocircle (Same size and shape) 

* Lung fishes are included in order dipnoi. 

2. SUPER CLASS TETRAPODA
1. CLASS AMPHIBIA

* Exoskeleton is absent 

* Respiration by lungs, gills or skin 

* Fertilization is external 

* Cold blooded 

* Having the characteristics of hibernation & aestivation 

* Common e.g. Toads, frogs, salamanders etc. 


2. CLASS REPTILIA

* Included in group amniota due to the presence of amnion in eggs 

* Fertilization is internal 

* Exoskeleton is made up of thick horny scales 

* Important members are snakes, turtles, lizards, crocodiles and alligators 

* Venom → Snake poison 

* Fangs → sharped and curved teeth of snake 


3. CLASS AVES (BIRDS)

* Study of birds is called ornithology 

* They posses hollow bones (Pneumatic bones) 

* Sound producing organ “Syrinx” is present instead of larynx. 

* Teeth totally absent. 


SUB CLASS RETITA (FLIGHT LESS BIRDS)

* E.g. Penguin, Kiwi, Ostrich. 

* Ostrich → Largest Bird. 


SUB CLASS CARNIATAE (FLYING BIRDS)

* Wings with interlocking system. 

* Common e.g. Peacock, Seagulls, Kites, Falcon etc. 

* Archeopetryx → Intermediate specie between reptiles and birds. 


4. CLASS MAMMALIA

* Presence of mammary glands and hairs. 

* A muscular organ diaphragm, which separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity. 

* Teeth are present with different size and shape (heterodont). 

a- Incissors → for biting and cutting purpose

b- Canives → Tearing purpose

c- Pre-Molars -> For grinding and holding purpose

d- Molars -> For grinding and holding purpose

SUB CLASS PROTOTHERA (EGG LAYING MAMMALS)

* Also called monotremous. 

* Two genera with 3 species 

* Oviparous. 

* Common urogenital opening Cloaca is present. 

* External ear is absent. 

* It is a connecting link between reptiles and true mammals. e.g. spiny anteater, duck billed platypus. 


SUB CLASS METATHERIA (POUCHED MAMMALS)

* Marsupials 

* Give birth to live young ones. 

* Special pouch like bag is present in the ventral side of female. 

* This pouch is known as marsupial. 

* Common e.g. Kangaroo, Kuala bear, Opossums. 


SUB CLASS EUTHERIA (PLACENTAL ANIMALS)

* 95% of mammals are included in this group. 

* Viviparous. 

* Placenta → connecting link between mother and fetus. 

* Common e.g. Camel, donkey, elephant, bat, whale, dolphin. 

* Markhor is the national animal of Pakistan also known as Wild goat

 
Phylum Chordata


* It includes animals, which exhibit great difference of anatomy, physiology and habits. 

* These animals are highly developed. 

INDEX

* 1 GENERAL CHARACTERS
* 2 1. NOTOCHORD
* 3 2. DORSAL HOLLOW NERVOUS SYSTEM
* 4 3. GILL CLEFTS
* 5 4. PHA-RYNGEAL POUCHES
* 6 OTHER FEATURES
* 7 CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CHORDATA
* 8 1. GROUP ACRANIATA (PROTOCHORDATA)
* 9 A) SUB-PHYLUM UROCHORDATA (NOTOCHORD IN TAIL)
* 10 B) SUB-PHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA (NOTOCHORD FROM HEAD TO TAIL)
* 11 2. GROUP CRANIATA (VERTEBRATA)
* 12 A) SUB-PHYLUM AGNATHA (MOUTH WITHOUT JAWS)
* 13 B) SUB-PHYLUM GNATHOSTOMATA (MOUTH WITH JAWS)
* 14 I) SUPER CLASS PISCES (FISHES)
* 15 LUNG FISHES
* 16 II) SUPER CLASS TETRAPODA
* 17 A) CLASS AMPHIBIA
* 18 B) CLASS REPTILIA
* 19 C) CLASS AVES (BIRDS)
* 20 CHARACTERS OF CLASS AVES
* 21 SUB-CLASSES OF AVES
* 22 D) CLASS MAMMALIA
* 23 CLASSIFICATION OF CLASS MAMMALIA

GENERAL CHARACTERS

The chordate animals at some time in their life history exhibit the following diagnostic characters:
1. NOTOCHORD

* It is an elastic, solid, skeletal rod lying below the nerve cord and above the alimentary canal. 

* It serves as a primitive internal skeleton and acts as a rigid axis. 

* It may persist throughout life or it may be replaced partially or completely by a backbone or vertebral column. 

2. DORSAL HOLLOW NERVOUS SYSTEM

* There is a dorsal, hollow, fluid filled nerve cord. 

* It is formed by enfolding of a mid-dorsal strip of ectoderm and it generally sinks below the surface. 

* It lies above the notochord and outside the coelom. 

* It persists throughout life in most chordates, but in a few it degenerates before maturity. 

3. GILL CLEFTS

* These are paired openings leading from the Pharynx to the exterior. 

* Such gill clefts appear during the development of every chordate, but in many aquatic forms they are lined with vascular lemallae, which forms gills for respiration. 

* In terrestrial chordates, which never breath by gills, gill clefts are present during early development but later on, they disappear. 

4. PHA-RYNGEAL POUCHES

* All the chordates have paired pharyngeal pouches at some stage of their life cycle. 

* These extend from laterally from the anterior part of the digestive tract towards the body wall. 

OTHER FEATURES

* Chordates are triploblastic. 

* They are bilaterally symmetrical. 

* True coelom is found. 

* They are found in almost all the habitats of the World. 


CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CHORDATA

The Phylum Chordata is divided into two groups which are:

1. Acraniata (Protochordata)

2. Craniata (Vertebrata)


1. GROUP ACRANIATA (PROTOCHORDATA)

* They are first or simple Chordates. 

* Brain box (Cranium) is absent and hence brain is not prominent. 

* Notochord does not transform into vertebral column. 

This group is further divided into two sub-phyla, which are as follows:

a) Sub-Phylum Urochordata (Notochord in tail)

b) Sub-Phylum Cephalochordata (Notochord head to tail)
A) SUB-PHYLUM UROCHORDATA (NOTOCHORD IN TAIL)

* They are also known as “Tunicates” because their body is enclosed in a sac called “Tunic.” 

* All members are marine and sessile. 

* Body possesses two openings, an incurrent or buccal siphon and an excurrent or Atrial siphon, through these openings exchange of gases and food or waste material take place. 

* As a result of “Retrogressive metamorphosis” the larva loses its tail and most of chordate characters and converts into an adult. 

* E.g: Ascidia, Herdmania etc. 

B) SUB-PHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA (NOTOCHORD FROM HEAD TO TAIL)

* This is a small group of marine animals, body with pointed ends. 

* Usually live buried in sand, in shallow water with anterior end protruded out. 

* They show all typical chordate characters (hollow dorsal nerve chord, pharyngeal gill slits and notochord). 

* Only two genera are present around the world. 

* E.g: Branchiostoma (Amphioxus) etc 


2. GROUP CRANIATA (VERTEBRATA)

* In these chordates brain is protected inside a skeletal brain box called “CRANIUM.” 

* Also known as “Vertebrates” because notochord is replaced by a vertebral column. 

This group is sub-divided into two sub-phyla, which are as follows:

a) Sub-Phylum Agnatha (Mouth without Jaws)

b) Sub-Phylum Gnathostomata (Mouth with Jaws)


A) SUB-PHYLUM AGNATHA (MOUTH WITHOUT JAWS)

* This is a small group of marine vertebrates also known as “Cyclostomes.” 

* Superficially they resemble the fish but lack the jaw so they are often known as “Jawless Fishes.” 

* They have rounded suctorial mouth with many rings of teeth. 

* Paired fins and scales on body. 

* Usually parasitic in nature. 

* E.g: Hag Fish, Lamprey etc. 


B) SUB-PHYLUM GNATHOSTOMATA (MOUTH WITH JAWS)

* It is a large group of vertebrates with both upper and lower jaw. 

* Teeth may be present or absent. 

Gnathostomata are divided into two super classes, which are as follows:

i) Pisces (Fishes)

ii) Tetrapoda


I) SUPER CLASS PISCES (FISHES)

* This is the largest group of chordates, which includes half of the chordate (25,000 species). 

* Study of fishes is called “Ichthyology.” 

* Body is streamlined with paired fins and covered over by dermal scales. 

Super class Pisces is divided into two classes, which are:

i-a) Chondrichthyes (Cartilage Fishes)

i-b) Osteiochthyes (Bony Fishes)

I-A) CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES (CARTILAGE FISHES)

* Alternate name is “Class Elasmobranchi.” 

* Usually includes marine fishes with endoskeleton of cartilage (soft bone). 

* Skin contains sharp tiny enamel coated denticles called “Placoid Scales,” which form exoskeleton. 

* · Mouth is ventral in position and tail fin is “Heterocercal.” 

* Five exposed gill slits, which are not covered over by a gill cover. 

* Common examples are Skates, Sharks, Rays and Scoliodon (Dog Fish)- a small Shark etc. 

I-B) CLASS OSTEIOCHTHYES (BONY FISHES)

* Alternate name is “Teleostom,” actually the largest class of chordates. 

* Includes marine and fresh water fishes. 

* Mouth is present at anterior tip. 

* Endoskeleton in these fishes is made up of hard bone while exoskeleton is made up of thin bony plates, which are known as “Cycloid” or “Ctenoid scales.” 

* Gills are covered over on each side by a gill cover called “Operculum.” 

* An air bladder is present which acts as a hydrostatic organ. 

* Tail fin is usually “Homocercal or Diphycercal.” 

* Common e.g are Eel, Sea-Horse, Flying Fish, Globe Fish etc 

LUNG FISHES

* Zoogeographically important fishes, belonging to group “Dipnoi, included in Class Osteiochthyes. 

* Only three living genera. 

* They respire by gills and by lungs during drought period (Lungs-Modified air bladder). 

* Limited distribution in South America, Africa and Australia. 

* E.g: Protopterus (African Lung Fish) 


II) SUPER CLASS TETRAPODA

* It includes following classes: 

a) Class Amphibia

b) Class Reptilia

c) Class Aves

d) Class Mammalia


A) CLASS AMPHIBIA

* This class includes the animals that came out of the water and established a successful life on land. 

* They took advantages of the improved possibilities by remaining close to water, by keeping a soft and moist skin, by developing lungs and by evolving a bony skeleton with a strong vertebral column and four legs. 

* They cope with seasonal changes by burrowing during extreme cold and save water by sealing themselves in a mucous envelop on dry land. 

* The bony endoskeleton is the main body support. 

* The notochord is absorbed during development 

* Breathing is mostly by means of skin and also lung, and also by lining of buccal cavity. 

* In larva the breathing is mostly by means of external or internal gills. 

* The circulatory system shows a three chambered heart, with two atria and one ventricle. 

* The amphibians are “Cold Blooded” (Poikilothermic) that is having internal temperature that very with the environment. 

* Eggs and sperms are laid in water and fertilization is external. 

* E.g: Frog and Toads, Salamanders, Newts, Mud puppies etc. 


B) CLASS REPTILIA

GENERAL CHARCTERS

The earliest reptiles evolved from the amphibians.

HABIT AND HABITAT

Reptiles are generally well adapted to life on land, in semi-dry, completely dry and even desert habitat.

NATURE

* All reptiles lay their eggs on land. 

* They are cold-blooded animals and are less active during low temperature. 

STRUCTURAL FEATURES

* They possess dry skin covered with epidermal scales. 

* In some lizards and crocodiles, small bony plates develop below the epidermal scales. 

* The skeleton is built on the same plane as that of amphibians, but is much stronger to support their body weight. 

* Respiration takes place exclusively through lungs. 

* Heart is three chambered, two auricles and one incompletely divided ventricle. (In Crocodiles, the ventricle is completely divided into two chambers.)
* The excretion takes place through kidneys. The reptiles secrete much of their waste products in form of non-toxic “Uric-Acid.” 

REPRODUCTION

* In most reptiles fertilization is internal. 

* Eggs are provided with a shell and are laid on land. 

* The early development of embryo takes place on the large quantities of yolk and albumin present in the egg. 

* Due to the presence of a protective membrane called “AMNION” in the egg, reptiles are included in the “Amniota Group” of Vertebrates. 

EXAMPLE

Alligators, Crocodile, Snake, Turtle and Gecko etc.


C) CLASS AVES (BIRDS)

EVOLUTION

* Aves have evolved from reptiles. 

* As they acquired the capability of true flight they were able to exploit the aerial environment and became the largest class of terrestrial vertebrates. 

CHARACTERS OF CLASS AVES

HABIT AND HABITAT

The birds live from pole to pole in all type of ecological zones. They all breed on land.


FLIGHT AND ADAPTATION

* Feathers differentiate birds from all other vertebrates. 

* Feathers originated as extraordinary development of Reptilian scales. 

* Instead of growing all over the body and spreading evenly, the feathers grow in definite tracts. 

* The feathers play an important role in the thermoregulation of birds. They trap air, which is a bad conductor of heat and so prevent loss of body heat. 

* To fly efficiently the birds have reduced their body weight in a variety of ways. 

* Many bones become hollow, thin and light. 

* Synsacrum and pygostyle are formed by the fusion of vertebrae and give strength to skeleton. 

* Birds possess strong muscles to control the use of wing in flight. 


ADAPTATION FOR COMMUNICATION

* They possess large eyes with well-developed sight. 

* The birds communicate with members of their species with sound signals for which the sense of hearing is well developed. 


STRUCTURAL FEATURES

* The great mobility of neck is helpful in feeding, nest building, preening and defence. 

* There are developed a number of types of bills according to their feeding habits. 

* The digestive system of birds is compact and can accommodate large quantity of food. 

* The food is stored for a short period in the crop. 

* “Gizzard” possess thick muscular wall with horny lining, small stones swallowed by birds are passed on the gizzard for grinding the food. 

* The “Syrinx” or sound-producing organ is found in no other vertebrate except the birds. It is located at the junction between the trachea and the paired bronchi. 

* The lungs of birds are small, solid, spongy and slightly distensible. They are in contact with a number of air sacs. 


MIGRATION IN BIRDS

A large number of species of birds exhibit a deep-rooted phenomenon of migration, during which they travel long distances from their summer breeding homes towards areas of warm climate.


SUB-CLASSES OF AVES

There are two main sub-classes of aves, which are:

i) Sub-Class Ratitae (Flightless Birds)

ii) Sub-Class Carinatae (Free-Flying Birds)


I) SUB CLASS RATITAE (FLIGHTLESS BIRDS)

* This sub-class includes modern big sized flight less birds. 

* They comparatively have heavy weight and their wings are either vestigial or rudimentary. 

* They have a flat sternum without keel. 

* Their flight muscles are poorly developed. 

* The distribution of these birds is restricted to few areas of the World. 

* E.g: Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Cassowary, Kiwi and Penguin. 


II) SUB-CLASS CARINATAE (FREE FLYING BIRDS)

* In this sub-class modern flying birds are included. 

* They are usually small, light weight birds with highly developed wings and feathers with interlocking system. 

* They possess sternum with a crest like keel to accommodate the hightly developed pectoral flight muscles. 

* The flying birds are distributed all around the World. 

* E.g: Sparrow, Pigeons, Myna, Bulbul, Hoopoes, Crow, Doves, Parrots, Fowls, Cuckoo and Ducks etc. 


D) CLASS MAMMALIA

Early mammals are originated from reptiles. The distinctive characteristic of mammals are at the highest grade of development in animal kingdom.

GENERAL CHARACTERS

HABIT AND HABITAT

Mostly terrestrial, a few aquatic.


NATURE

* They are warm-blooded animals. 

* They can maintain a fairly high body temperature and so can successfully survive in colder areas of the world. 


TEMPERATURE REGULATION

* Heat is generated by high metabolic rate of their body and is lost by increasing blood circulation in the skin and evaporation of sweat. 

* The mammalian body temperature is maintained at 35˚C-40˚C. 


APPARENT FEATURE

* All mammals possess hair on skin. 

* Sweat glands and sebaccous glands are present on skin. 

* Mammary glands secrete milk in females. 

* External ears (Pinna) are present. 

* Teeth are heterodont i.e. not uniform. The different types of teeth are: Incisors, Canine, Premolars, Molars. 


SKELETAL SYSTEM

* Skull with two occipital condyles is present. 

* Lower jaw is composed of single bone on each side. 

* Vertebrae are “Gastrocentrous,” composed of three pieces i.e. the centrum and two epiphyses. 

* Digits of fore and hind limbs are usually five. 

* Cervical (Neck) vertebrae are seven. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* A thick muscular septum “Diaphram” is present between abdomen and thoracic cavity. 

* Heart is four-chambered. 

* R.B.Cs are non-nucleated. 

* Brain with four optic lobes. 

* Kidney is metanephrous. 

* The stomach is simple sac but rarely complicated. 


REPRODUCTION

* Mammals give birth to young ones (Viviparous), which are nourished by parents. Except Prototherians that lay eggs. 

* Fertilization is internal. 

* Development of eggs occurs in the uterus of female, where the developing embryo develops relationship with mother (Placenta). 

* After the birth of the child, the mother nourished her young ones. 


CLASSIFICATION OF CLASS MAMMALIA

Mammals are divided into three sub-class:


1. SUB-CLASS PROTOTHERIA

Includes the egg laying mammals. For example Duck billed, Echidna (Spiny anteater).


2. SUB-CLASS METATHERIA

Includes the pouched mammals, also known as “Marsupial mammals.” For example Kangaroo, Koala Bear and Opossums etc.


3. SUB-CLASS EUTHERIA

Includes the placental mammals. For example Monkey, Cow, Elephant, Cat, Dog, Bat, Whale and Human being etc.

Kingdom Anamalia

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Classification of Kingdom Anamalia

* The classification or grouping of animals is called Taxonomy or Systematics, primarily on the basis of their evolutionary relationships. 

* Major phyla of kingdom Animalia are as follows 

* Phylum Porifera (Sponges) 

* Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata) 

* Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat worms) 

* Phylum Aschelminthes (Nematoda/Round worm) 

* Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms) 

* Phylum Mollusca (Shelled Animals) 

* Phylum Arthropoda (Jointed Appendages Animals) 

* Phylum Echinodermata 

* Phylum Hemichordata 

* Phylum Chordata 

* Summary of Kingdom Anamalia

Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

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Word Porifera is derived from Latin Porus – Pores and Ferro – to bear. The animals are also called “Sponges”.

Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata)

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This phylum include such simple animals having only two body layers. Hence these are called DIPLOBLASTIC 

MAIN CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT

They are aquatic animals, mostly marine and few fresh water forms. They are sedentary or free swimming and solitary or colonial


STRUCTURE

* The cnidaria are metazoa having the simplest type of body wall consisting of two layers. The outer epidermis and the inner gastrodermis which lines the body cavity. 

* In between the two layers lies the mesogloa, non-cellular jelly secreted by them. 

* Cnidarians, due to their two layers body wall are termed as diploblastic animals. All other metazons possesses a third layer called mesoderm in their body wall, laying in between the epidermis and gastrodermis (Endoderm) and are therefore called Triploblastic animals. 

* They have radially symmetrical body plan organized as a hollow sac. 

* The mouth is surrounded by a circle of tentacles bearing cnidoblasts stinging cells containing nematocysts. 

* They have central digestive cavity connected to the outside by mouth. 

STRUCTURAL TYPES

The Cnidarians are radially symmetrical and occur in two types of forms.

(a) The polyp

(b) The Medusa
(A) POLYP

The polyp like Cnidarian for example sea anemone has a cylindrical body with a mouth directed upwards and surrounded by tentacles. The basal surface of the body is attached to the substratum.
(B) MEDUSA

The medusa like Cnidarians jelly fish are umbrella like in appearance. Their oral surface, bearing the mouth is directed downwards. Whereas the aboral surface is directed upward. The medusoid Cnidarians are usually free swimming.


PROCESS OF FEEDING AND DEFENCE

* The Cnidarians feed mostly on animal diet. 

* The food is digested in the gut and the waste products are expelled through the mouth. 

* The Cnidarians so named, because they possess cnidoblasts bearing nematocysts which help in feeding and defence. 


REPRODUCTION

The Cnidarians reproduce by asexual as well as sexual methods. Polypoid Cnidarians possess a remarkable ability to regenerate.
(A) REGENERATION

If the oral part of the body is lost. The remaining part regenerates the new mouth and the whole of tentacles.
(B) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

A sexual reproduction takes place by Budding.
(C) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

* The sexual reproduction takes place through male or female gametes which are usually produced by different parents. 

* The gametes develop in the interstitial cells and aggregate in gonads which are located either in the epidermis or in the gastodermis. 

* The fertilized egg gives rise to “Planula Larva” 


CLASSIFICATION OF CNIDARIA (COELENTERATA)

The Phylum Cnidaria is divided into three classes:

1. Hydrozoa

2. Scyphozoa

3. Anthozoa
1. HYDROZOA

As the most primitive class of the Cnidarians, Hydrozoa is thought by some evolutionists to have given rise to both other classes. They show following characteristic features:

* They are mainly marine, but some are fresh water species 

* Many species have both polyp and medusa 

For e.g:

Hydra, Obelia and Physalia
2. SCYPHOZOA

* Most of animals of this class are commonly called “Jelly Fish”. 

* They are semitransparent and are of various colours. 

* Most are of marine habitat. 

For e.g:

Aurelia and Cyanea (largest Jelly Fish)
3. ANTHOZOA

* These animals are mostly marine. 

* Solitary or colonial Polyp forms are present. 

* Medusa stage is absent. 

* Gastrovascular cavity is divided into chambers, increase area for digestion. 

For e.g:

Sea-anemones and Corals etc

Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat worms)

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The term Platyhelminthes is derived from Greek Platy – flat and Helmenthes – worms. This Phylum include Flat worms.

INDEX

* 1 MAIN CHARACTERS
* 2 HABIT AND HABITAT
* 3 NATURE
* 4 EXTERNAL FEATURES
* 5 INTERNAL FEATURES
* 6 REPRODUCTION
* 7 EXAMPLES

MAIN CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT

Animals are mostly Parasitic in habitat and found in other higher animals. But some animals are also free living.


NATURE

They are triploblastic in nature i.e. body is composed of three germinal layers, viz, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* Their bodies are compressed dorsoventrally and shows bilateral symmetry. 

* Body shape generally worm like but vary from moderately elongated flattened to long flat ribbons and leaf like. 

* The flat worms are small to moderate in size varying from microscopic to as long as up to 10-15 m. 

* Majority of animals are white or colourless, some derive colour from ingested food. 

* Anterior end of body is differentiated into head. 

* Ventral surface bearing mouth and genital pores. 

* Presence of great variety of adhesive parts e.g. suckers. 

* Body is covered by cuticle or by ciliated epidermis. 

* Hard part consist of cuticle, spines, thorns or hooks etc. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* Endo and Exo skeleton are completely absent, hence the body is generally soft. 

* Acoelomate i.e. true coelom is absent. 

* Body space between various organs is filled with MESENCHYME. 

* Digestive system is poorly developed or absent. 

* Respiratory and Circulatory systems are absent. 

* Excretory system consists of Protonephridia or flame cells. 

* Nervous system is primitive. The main nervous system consists of a pair of cerebral ganglia or brain and 1-3 pairs of longitudinal nerve cords, connected to each other by transverse commissures. 


REPRODUCTION

* Platyhelmenthes are hermaphrodite i.e. male and female sex organs are present in same individual. 

* In majority of forms eggs are devoid of Yolk but provided with special yolk cells. 

* Cross fertilization as well as self fertilization is present. 

* Life cycle may be simple or complicated involved one or more hosts. 


EXAMPLES

Planaria, Liver flukes, Schistosoma and Taenia Solium etc


Nematoda are called Pin worm or round worms.

INDEX

* 1 MAIN CHARACTERS
* 2 HABIT AND HABITAT
* 3 NATURE
* 4 EXTERNAL FEATURES
* 5 INTERNAL FEATURES
* 6 REPRODUCTION
* 7 EXAMPLES

MAIN CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT

* Nematoda have a very wide distribution and they seem to have mastered almost every habitat. 

* Free living nematodes are found in the sea, fresh water or in the soil in all kinds of environment. 

* There are also many Parasitic nematodes found in all groups of Plants and animals. 

* The Saprophagous species live in decomposing plant and animal bodies and in rotting fruits. 


NATURE

They have a bilaterally symmetrical, cylindrical body, glistening smooth surface. They are triploblastic.


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* They show no trace of segmentation. 

* Most of the free living nematodes are less then a millimeter length. 

* Some of the parasitic species attain a length of several meters e.g. Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). 

* They are usually long, round, tapered at both ends showing very little morphological diversity from species to species. 

* The mouth of nematodes is modified for various modes of feeding such as cutting, tearing, piercing and sucking fluids from the host. 

* Body is covered by cuticle, which moults only during the period of growth. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* The organs are packed in parenchyma when young, but later on it disappears in adult. So that organs lie in a fluid filled cavity. This cavity is termed as PSEUDOCOEL and it has not peritoneum. 

* Muscles are only longitudinal. 

* Excretory system has no flame cells. 

* Alimentary canal is straight with ectodermal fore and hind gut and an endodermal mid gut. 


REPRODUCTION

* Sexes are generally separate. 

* Gonades are tubular and continues with their ducts. 

* Female organs are usually paired and open by vulva. 

* Male organs are single and open into a cloaca. 

* The life cycle of Parasitic species involves one, two or more hosts 


EXAMPLES

Ascaris (Round worms), Hookworms and Thread worms etc.

Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms)

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The word Annelida is derived from latin Annelus meaning little ring.



MAIN CHARACTERS
NATURE

Annelida are triploblastic, symmetrical, coelomata and segmented metozoa.


HABIT AND HABITAT

Annelida are mostly aquatic, marine or fresh water, burrowing or living in tubes, some free living forms.


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* The most important feature of annelida is their metameric segmentation. (External segmentation) 

* Segmentation is indicated externally by circular constrictions or grooves on the body wall. 

* Outer covering of the body is cuticle secreted by the underlying epidermis. 

* Appendages, when present are unjointed. 

* Locomotory organs are segmentally arranged, paired setae or chaetae. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* Body wall is contractile, consists of an outer epidermis, circular and longitudinal muscles. 

* The gut, longitudinal blood vessels and the nerve cord extend throughout the body length, whereas other structures are repeated in each segment. 

* Important character of annelida is the development of series of coelomic compartments in their body between the gut and the body wall. 

* The Coelom is a cavity, which develop within the mesoderm and is lined by mesodermal cells. 

* Segmented musculature plays an important part in locomotion of Annelids. 


SYSTEMS OF BODY

* Alimentary canal is tube like extending straight from mouth to anus. 

* Respiration through general body surface, by gills in some forms. 

* Blood vascular system is closed type. 

* Blood is red due to haemoglobin. 

* Excretory organs are Nephridia usually one pair in each segment. 

* Nervous system consists of dorsal brain and longitudinal ventral nerve cord. 

* Sexes may be united or separate. 

* Development is direct when sexes are united and indirect when sexes are separate. 


EXAMPLES

Nereis, Earthworm and Leeches etc.


CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM ANNELIDA

Phylum Annelida is divided into four classes:

1. Polychaeta

2. Oligochaeta

3. Hirudinea

4. Archiannelida


1.POLYCHAETA

LOCOMOTORY ORGANS

The Polychaetes possess paired parapodia functioning as locomotry appendages, are present only in the class Polychaeta.

PROSTOMIUM

Usually there is a distinct head or Prostomium bearing sensory and feeding appendages.

MODE OF LIFE

The Polychaetes may be carnivorous, scavengers, or filter feeders.

REPRODUCTION

The sexes are separate and fertilization of eggs takes place outside body. Their free swimming larva is called Trochophore.

RESPIRATION

The respiration takes place through the body surface in many but in some gills may be present as respiratory organs.

EXAMPLES

Some well-known examples of marine polychaetes are Nereis, Arenicola and Sabella. Nereis lives beneath stones and in crakes of rocks.


2.CLASS OLIGOCHAETA

LOCOMOTORY ORGANS

The Oligochaetes possess fewer numbers of Setae as compared to the Polychaetes. The setae help the earth worms in crawling.

SENSE ORGANS

There anterior end lacks eyes, or sensory appendages.

CLITELLUM

At sexual maturity, all of the oligochaetes develop in several segment, glandular epithelium, called clitellum.

MODE OF LIFE

* Oligochaetes live either in fresh water or on land. 

* There is no free swimming larval stage in their development 

* Majority of oligochaetes are scavengers, feeding on decomposing organic matter. 

* Some fresh water species feed on algae. 

* Burrowers like earth worm ingest a large quantity of soil, digest the organic matter and the living fauna. 

RESPIRATION

Respiration takes place through their general body surface. Some aquatic species possess anal gills.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Earthworms increase the fertility of soil by physically over turning it. They ingest the soil, break it down and deposit it in the form of casts. The over turned soil is relatively in proportions of total nitrogen, organic carbon, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus.


3.CLASS HIRUDINEA

BODY SEGMENTS

Unlike polychaetes and oligochaetes, the number of body segment in leeches is fixed at 34.

SUCKERS

The anterior and posterior body segments are fused to form suckers.

LOCOMOTION

Leeches either swim or crawl.

RESPIRATION

Respiration generally takes place through the body surface. Leaf like gills may be present.

PARASITIC NATURE

Most leeches feed by sucking blood of aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates.


4.ARCHIANNELIDA

* It is a small group of marine worms. 

* They are not segmented externally and don’t have bristles. 

* They live in the sea and show annelid characteristics to a minor extent. 

* Their development is also characterized by Trochophore Larva. 

EXAMPLES

* Nerilla 

* Dinophilus

Phylum Mollusca (Shelled Animals)


Mollusca is the second largest phylum of the animal kingdom, and include Slugs, Clams, Scallops and Squids.

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MAIN CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT

The majority of molluscs are marine. Some snails and clams inhabit fresh water while slugs are terrestrial.


NATURE

* Molluscs are primitively bilaterally symmetrical animals. 

* Some molluscs serve as intermediate host of helminthes parasites and some are destructive to wooden bottom of ship. 


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* The body is soft, unsegmented and consists of head, foot, mantle and visceral mass. 

* The body is clothed with a one layered epidermis. 

* Body is commonly protected by an exoskeletal calcerous shell of one or more pieces, secreted by Mantle. 

* Head is distinct, bearing the mouth and provided with eyes, tentacles and other sense organs. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* Visceral mass contains the organs of the body in compact form. 

* Body cavity is hoemocoel. 

* Digestive system-tract is simple. 

* Circulatory system is open. 

* The mouth in many species possesses a radulla, (a tongue like structure) that can be protruded to scrape, tear or pull food. 

* The respiration is by means of gills or lungs. 

* The nervous system consists of cerebral ganglion, a pair of pedal cords to the foot and a pair of visceral mass. 


REPRODUCTION

* Molluscs may have separate sexes or they may be hermaphrodite. 

* The fertilized eggs give rise to a larva stage which transform into adult. 

* Three types of larva trochophore, veliger and glochidium occur in molluscs. 


CLASSIFICATION OF MOLLUSCA

The phylum Mollusca is divided into six classes:

1. Amphineura

2. Scaphopoda

3. Gastropoda

4. Bivalvia

5. Cephalopoda

6. Monoplacophora


CLASS GASTROPODA

EXAMPLE

This is the largest class of mollusca which included Snails, Whelks, Conchs, Limpets, Cowries and Slugs.

CHARACTERS

* The gastropods are mostly marine, though some live in fresh water and a few are terrestrial. 

* The gastropods are asymmetrical. 

* They have a well developed head and a broad muscular foot. 

* Both are on the ventral side of their body. 

* Their visceral organs are located on the dorsal side and are enclosed in a one piece shell which is spirally coiled. 

* The gastropods use the redula to scarp food particles or to drill holes in the shells of bivalves. 

* Some are carnivorous, a few are filter feeders. 


CLASS BIVALVIA

* The class Bivalvia is the second largest class of the Phylum Mollusca. 

* The bivalves are bilaterally symmetrical with a laterally compressed body enclosed in a shell of two pieces (valves) hinged together.
* The shell can be opened or closed. 

* By closing the shell tightly, the animals can protect it self off from unfavourable environment or saves itself from predators.
* The head is rudimentary and the radula is absent. 

* The foot is ventral, laterally compressed, usually wedge shaped. 

EXAMPLE

Bivalves include the Clams, Mussels, Oysters and Scallops. They are mostly marine some live in fresh water but none is terrestrial.

PEARL FORMATION

* When a foreign particle living or dead enters a bivalve it causes irritation. 

* The epithelial cells of the mantle start depositing concentric layers of calcerous material around it, which ultimately forms a pearl. 

* Pearl culture has been successfully carried out by artificially introducing fragments of man made hard material in pearl oysters.
* Pearls are formed both in marine as well as fresh water species. 


CLASS CEPHALOPODA

* The cephalopods are all marine and exhibit a high level of development. 

* Nautilus is the only living cephaloped that possesses a well developed external shell which is coiled and divided by transverse Septa in chambers. 

* The shell is reduced and overgrown by mantle in Squids and Cuttle fish. 

* It is completely absent in Octopus. 

EXAMPLES

Nautrilords, Squids, Cuttle fish, Octopus etc.


CLASS MONOPLACOPHORA

* They are primitive molluscs with a long fossil record. 

* They have only one living representative, Neoporlina, which retains the segmented characteristics of annelids, lost in all other molluscs.

Phylum Arthropoda (Jointed Appendages Animals)

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MAIN CHARACTERS

* Arthropoda is the largest Phylum of the animal kingdom including 10, 00000 species of different types of animals. 

* The word Arthropods is derived from Greek Arthos – Jointed and Podos – Foot. 


HABIT AND HABITAT

Arthropodes have undergone an adaptive radiation for aerial, aquatic, terrestrial and parasitic environment. They are widely distributed in each and every place of the world.


NATURE

* Arthropoda are “bilaterally symmetrical,” metamerically segmented metazoa. 


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* Their body is covered by an exo-skeleton of “chitin” and protein. 

* They possess paired jointed appendages. 

* Their metamers are not alike but are specialized and their number is generally fixed. 

* The head is well developed. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* Musculature is not continues but comprises separates striped muscles. 

* The coelomic space in Arthropods is occupied by the blood vascular system and is thus called “Haemocoel.” 

* Digestive tract is complete; mouth and anus lie at the opposite end of the body. 

* Circulatory system is open with dorsal heart and arteries but without capillaries. 

* Respiration through general body surface, by gills in aquatic forms, trachea or book lungs in terrestrial forms. 

* Excretion by “Malpighian tubules” or Coelomoducts. 

* Sexes are generally separate and sexual dimorphism is often exhibited by several forms. 

* Fertilization is internal. 

* Development is usually indirect through the larval stage. 

* Nervous system of arthropods is quite similar to that of annelids and consists of dorsal anterior brain and a double ventral nerve cord. 


CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA

Phylum Arthropoda is divided into following five classes:
1. CLASS MEROSTOMATA

* Almost all members of the class Merostomata are extinct. The only living merostomes, the king Crabs have survived. 

* The animals are horse-shoe shaped. 

* The long spike like tail that extends, posteriorly is used in locomotion. It is called “Telson.” 

* They feed on mollusks, worms and other invertebrates that they find on the ocean floor. 

* King Crabs a hors-shoe crabs have a tough “Carapace” jointed to a smaller abdomen. 

* E.g:Limulus Polyphemus (King Crab). 


2. CLASS ARACHNIDA

* This class includes spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks and many other terrestrial arthropods. 

* The Arachnid body consists of a cephalothorax and abdomen. 

* Cephalothorax is comprised of fused head and thorax. 

* Arachnids have six pairs of jointed appendages. 

* Most Archnids are carnivorous and prey upon insects and other small arthropods. 

* Respiration in archnids takes place either by trachea or book lungs or by both. 

* They are mainly terrestrial arthropods. 

* They have no antenna. 

* Cephalothorax is non-segmented. 

* E.g: Scorpions, Ticks & Mites, Spiders 


3. CLASS CRUSTACEA

* They live both in marine and fresh waters. 

* A few are terrestrial. 

* Crustaceans are unique among arthropods in possessing two pairs of antenna. 

* They always have one pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae around the mouth. 

* Mandibles are usually adapted for biting and chewing. Maxillae are used for holding the food. 

* Their body is divided into three distinct parts, i.e. the head, thorax and abdomen. 

* Respiration usually takes place through gills associated with appendages. 

* The sexes are usually separate and the reproduction is sexual. 

* The thoracic and abdominal appendages may be variously modified for walking, swimming, feeding, respiration or as accessory reproductive structures. 

* E.g: Sacculina (Parasitic Crustacean), Astacus (Cray-fish), Prawns, Shrimps, Lobsters and Crabs etc. 

4. CLASS MYRIAPODA

* All the animals are terrestrial. 

* Their body is divided into a head and an elongated trunk with many segments. 

* Each segment bears one or two pairs of legs. 

* They are carnivorous /herbivorous. 

* Eyes may present or absent. 

* E.g: Millipedes and Centipedes etc. 


5. CLASS INSECTA (HEXAPODA)

Insecta is the largest class of the animal kingdom.


HABIT AND HABITAT

* In their adaptive radiation, approximately a 8,50,000 species of insecta have occupied all types of terrestrial habitat. 

* Some live in fresh water, however one small group is marine. 


NATURE AND ADAPTATIONS

* The great success of insects can be attributed partly to the development of flight in them. 

* Flight has provided them the great capacity of dispersal, access to food sources, and favourable habitat and escape from enemies. 

* Corresponding to their number of species, there exists a huge variation in their structural and biological adaptations. 


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* All insects have their body divided into three well-defined regions i.e. the head, thorax and abdomen. 

* There is always a pair of antenna on the head. 

* The thorax always consists of three segments: 

(a) Prothorax

(b) Mesothorax

(c) Metathorax

* Each thoracic segment bears a pair of legs. 

* Head consists of six fused segments and a pair of compound eyes and mouth parts. 

* Abdomen comprises 7-11 segments and devoid of appendages. 

MOUTH PARTS

* The feeding appendages consists of three pairs: 

(a) Mandibles

(b) First Pair of Maxilla

(c) Second Pair of Maxilla

* The second pair of maxillae have fused together to form the “LABIUM,” or lower lip 

* The upper lip is formed by the projections head and is called the “LABRUM.’ 

* Types:- The mouth appendages have been greatly modified to form five basic types of pattern: 

(i) Biting

(ii) Chewing

(iii) Piercing

(iv) Sucking

(v) Siphoning or Sponging


INTERNAL FEATURES

* Heart is elongated, tubular and divided into chambers situated in the abdomen. 

* Excretion takes place through “Malpighian tubules.” 

* Liver is absent but salivary glands are usually present. 

* Respiration is by “TRACHEA”. External gills may be present as accessory respiratory organs in some aquatic insects. 


REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is sexual in most insects. However it takes place parthenogenetically i.e. eggs developing without being fertilized by sperms in a number of insects e.g: Aphids and Termites etc.

METAMORPHOSIS

* The development of insects after hatching from egg into adult stage involves considerable growth and in some cases drastic morphological changes. 

* The entire post-hatching development is termed as “Metamorphosis.” 

(A) INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS

* In some insects the immature form that hatch from the egg are essentially similar in shape to their adults, but are smaller in size, lack wings and reproductive organs 

* They attain adult characters after some growth period. This type of metamorphosis is called “Incomplete Metamorphosis.” 

* Three stages are Egg → Nymph → Adult. 

* For example Cockroach, Grasshopper, Bugs etc. 

(B) COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS

* In this type the animal shows following stages during its complete development: Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult. 

* For example Mosquito, Butter fly, House fly etc. 


ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS

Insects are of very great importance to man.

BENEFICIAL INSECTS

1. Apis, the honey bees produce honey and also give wax.

2. Insects bring about the cross-pollination.

3. Bombyx and Eupterote are silk-moths and produce silk.

4. The larvae of Lucilla and Pharmia are used in wound healing of bones.

5. Some insects feed upon and destroy harmful insects.

6. Some insects are Scavengers

HARMFUL INSECTS

1. Many types of mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice and bugs transmit diseases to man and animals.

2. Human food is spoiled by cockroaches, ants and flies.

3. Tinea and Teniola are cloth-moths and destroy cloths.

4. Tenebrio is mealworm. They eat meal, flour and grains.

5. Lepisma destroy the books.

6. Termites destroy books and wood.

7. Many insects injurious to crops e.g. Tree hoppers, Leaf hoppers, Aphids, White flies and bugs.

Phylum Echinodermata

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GENERAL CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT

The Echinodermates are exclusively marine including the largest invertebrate “Giant Squids.”


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* Symmetry usually radial, nearly always pentamerous. 

* Body shape is rounded to cylindrical or star like. 

* Surface of the body is rough. 

* Body wall consists of an outer epidermis, a middle dermis and inner lining of peritoneum. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* Endoskeleton consists of closely fitted plates forming shell usually called “THECA,” may be composed of separate small “OSSICLES.” 

* Coelom is spacious, lined by peritoneum and occupied mainly by digestive and reproductive systems. 

* Presence of “Water Vascular System” is most characteristic feature. 

* Alimentary tract is usually coiled. 

* Circulatory or Haemal or blood lacunar system is typically present. 

* Excretory system is wanting. 

* Nervous system is primitive, consists of ganglionated nerve cord. 

* Sense organs are poorly developed. 

* Sexes are usually separate. 

* Reproduction is usually sexual, fertilization is external. 


WATER CANAL SYSTEM

Water canal system is unique in possessing an internal closed system of canals containing a watery fluid.


REGENERATION

Regeneration of lost part is common


IMPORTANCE OF WATER CANAL SYSTEM

These canals are provided with tubular protrusions called “Tube Feet,” which serve a number of functions like locomotion, anchoring to hard surfaces, grabbing the prey, diverting food particles towards mouth and in some cases also respiration. The watery fluid is drawn from the surrounding water through a perforated disc called the “Madreporite.”


EXAMPLE

Star Fish, Brittle stars, Sea urchins, Sea-cucumbers, Sea-Dollar, Sea-lilies and Feather stars.


LARVA

Bipinnaria larva

Phylum Hemichordata

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GENERAL CHARACTERS

* It is a small group of animals, which include about 90 species. 

* They are soft-bodied animals, which usually live in shallow “U” shaped burrows in the sandy or muddy sea bottom. 


EXTERNAL FEATURES

* They are cylindrical or vase shaped animals, bilaterally symmetrical and lack any segmentation. 

* They may be solitary or colonial and usually range between a few millimeter and 250 cm in length. 

* Sexes are separate in hemichordates. 


INTERNAL FEATURES

* Circulatory system is open and coelom is divided into three chambers. 

* A dorsal and a ventral nerve cord are present. 


LARVA

Tornaria larva


EXAMPLE

Balanoglossus, Acron worm etc.

Nutrition

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* Nutrition in Plants 

* Human Digestive System 

* Digestive System of Cockroach

Read more: Nutrition http://www.friendsmania.net/forum/1st-year-biology-notes/20530.htm#ixzz354w4SJN8

Nutrition in Plants

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CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF NUTRITION

Plants can be divided into two groups on the basis of their mode of nutrition.

1. AUTOTROPHIC

2. HETEROTROPHIC


1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

DEFINITION

“Autotrophic nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organic compounds are manufactured from available inorganic raw material taking from surroundings”.

In autotrophic nutrition, the nutrients do not require to be pretreated or digested before taking them into their cells.


TWO METHODS OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

On the basis of source of energy, autotrophic nutrition can be sub-divided into following sub-types.

(I) Phototrophic nutrition

(II) Chemotrophic nutrition


I. PHOTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

DEFINITION

“The type of autotrophic nutrition is which organic molecules are manufactured from simple inorganic molecules by using light energy as a source is called Phototrophic Nutrition”.

EXAMPLE

a. Green Plants

b. Photosynthetic Bacteria


(I-A) PHOTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN GREEN PLANTS

Green plants are very prominent example of phototrophic nutrition. They prepare the food by the process of photosynthesis.
RAW MATERIAL

The raw material needed by these organisms are


(1) CO2 AND H20

They provide carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for the synthesis of organic molecules.


(2) MINERALS

The minerals like Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulphur and Magnesium are also required.


(3) GREEN PIGMENTS

The green pigments i.e. Chlorophyll a, b, or others are also required to absorb the energy from universal source of light.


(4) LIGHT

In the presence of sun light nutrients are used to synthesis the energy rich compounded (CHO) This process is called “PHOTOSYNTHESIS”.

This process can be represented by equation as follows.

6CO2 + 12H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O


(I-B) PHOTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA

Photosynthetic bacteria are unique because they are the only organisms which are capable of synthesizing the carbohydrate food without chlorophyll “a”.


DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA AND GREEN PLANTS

Photosynthesis in bacteria is different from green plants. Some differences are

* Photosynthetic bacteria usually grow in sulphide spring where H2S is normally present.

* Hydrogen is provided by H2S instead of H2O.

* Free oxygen is not released as a by product in bacterial photosynthesis.

* The process takes place at low expenditure of energy.


TWO TYPES OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA

There are two types of photosynthetic bacteria.


(1) THOSE IN WHICH “S” IS RELEASED AS BY PRODUCT

These bacteria use H2S as donor of hydrogen. Light splits hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen combines with CO2 to form H2O.

2H2S + CO2 -> (CH2O)n + H2O + 2S

EXAMPLES

Purple Sulphur Bacteria ® which use BACTERIO CHLOROPHIL & CARETENOID as photosynthetic pigments.


(2) THOSE IN WHICH “S” IS NOT RELEASED AS BY PRODUCT

These bacteria use H2S as Hydrogen donor where as sulphur is not the by product in their case.

EXAMPLES

* PURPLE NON-SULPHUR BACTERIA

* BROWN NON-SULPHUR BACTERIA

Both of these contain “BACTERIO CHLORPHYLL” as photosynthetic pigments.


(II) CHEMOTROPHIC NUTRITION

DEFINITION

“The mode of autotrophic nutrition in which organic molecules are manufactured from simple inorganic molecules by using energy produced by the oxidation of certain inorganic substances such as ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ferrous ions, H2S and etc. This type of nutrition is called CHEMOTROPHIC NUTRITION and process of manufacturing food is called CHEMOSYNTHESIS."

Mainly Bacteria are

AMMONIA USING BACTERIA

They derive their energy by oxidation of Ammonia.

NH4+ + O2 -> 2NO2 + 2H2O + 4H+ + energy

BACTERIA CONVERTING NITRITES TO NITRATES

2NO2 + O2 -> 2NO3- + energy
IMPORTANCE OF CHEMOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA

The chemosynthetic bacteria that act on nitrogen compounds do play an important role in the maintenance of nitrogen balance in the life system.


2. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PLANTS

DEFINITION

“Plants which are not capable of manufacturing their own organic molecules entirely or partially depend for these organic molecular are called “HETEROTROPHIC PLANTS”

CLASSIFICATION OF HETEROTROPHIC PLANTS

On the basis of type of organisms on which heterotrophic plants depend, they can be classified into following two classes.

1. PARASITC PLANTS OR PARASITES

2. SAPROPHYTIC PLANTS OR SAPROPHYTES


==1. PARASITES

DEFINITION

"Those heterotrophic plants which depend on living plants and animals for their nutritional requirements are known as PARASITES."


TYPES OF PARASITES

Parasitic plants can be divided into following types.

A. Obligate or total parasites.

B. Facultative or partial parasites.


1.A TOTAL PARASITES

DEFINITION

Those parasites which depend for their nutrition entirely on other living organisms
CLASSIFICATION OF TOTAL PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS

Total or obligate parasitic angiosperms are broadly classified into

* Total stem parasite

* Total root parasite


TOTAL STEM PARASITES

DEFINITION

“Those parasitic plants which depend entirely on the stems of other plants are called “Total stem Parasites”

EXPLANATION

These plants send HAUSTORIA (specialized structures for absorbing nutrients in parasitic plants) inside the tissue of host. The xylem of parasite comes in contact with xylem of host and phloem of parasite to phloem of host. Through xylem it sucks the water and nutrients, through phloem prepared organic material. The host plant eventually dies off due to exhaustion.

EXAMPLE

CUSCUTA (AMER-BAIL)


TOTAL ROOT PARASITES

DEFINITION

"Those parasitic plants which suck their nutritional requirements from the roots of host are called “Total root parasites”.

EXAMPLES

* OROBANCHE -> attacks the roots of the plants belonging to families Cruciferae and Solanaceae

* CISTANCHE -> Parasitizes on the roots of Calatropis.

* STRIGA -> Found as parasite on the roots of sugar cane


(1.B)PARTIAL PARASITES

DEFINITION

“Those parasite plants which depend for their nutritional requirements partially on other living organisms are called Falcultave or partial parasites."
CLASSIFICATION OF PARTIAL PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS

Partial parasitic angiosperms can be broadly classified into

* PARTIAL STEM PARASITE

* PARTIAL ROOT PARASITE


PARTIAL STEM PARASITES

DEFINITION

Those partial parasites whose haustoria penetrate in the stem of the host and suck their nutrition from vascular tissues of stem are called PARTIAL STEM PARASITE

EXPLANATION

LORANTHUS, is a partial stem parasite. It has thick green leaves, a woody stem and elaborated haustorial system. It can manufacture some of its food with the help of nutrients and water absorbed from host plants. The seeds get stuck upto the stem of host plant and germinates sending its haustoria in the tissues of the host.

EXAMPLES

* LORANTHUS -> found on shrubs, roseaceous tree, Bauhinia and mango

* VISCUM -> produce haustorial branches for an internal suckling system.

* CASSYTHA FILLIFORMIS -> found in tropics


PARTIAL ROOT PARASITES

EXAMPLE

The examples of this category are rare.

One important example is

* SANDLE WOOD TREE


SAPROPHYTES

DEFINITION

“Those plants which depend for their nutrition on dead or rotten organic remains of plants or animals are called as SAPROPHYTES”

or

“Plants which break up complex dead food material into simple compounds and use them for their growth and development are called as SAPROPHYTES.”


TYPES OF SAPROPHYTES

Saprophytes can be divided into two types:

1. Total Saprophytes

2. Partial Saprophytes


1. TOTAL SAPROPHYTES

DEFINITION

“Those plants which depend entirely for their nutrition on dead organic matter are called Total Saprophytes.


2. PARTIAL SAPROPHYTES

DEFINITION

“Those plants which depend partially on dead organic matter are called Partial Saprophytes.”


EXAMPLES OF SAPROPHYTES

There are some examples of Saprophytes among flowering plants.

1. Neothia (bird’s net or orchid)

2. Monotrapa (Indian Pipe)

In both of these cases, the roots of plant form a Mycorhizzal Association with fungal mycelium to help in absorption process.


SPECIAL MODE OF NUTRITION
CARNIVOROUS OR INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS

DEFINITION

“The plants which have as their prey, insects and small birds are called Carnivorous plants. It is a special mode of nutrition in partially autotrophic and partially heterotrophic plants."


EXPLANATION

Partially autotrophic and partially heterotrophic plants are carnivorous, which possess the green pigments and can manufacture CHO but are not capable of synthesizing nitrogenous compounds and proteins. For their nitrogen requirement, carnivorous plants have to depend on insects, which they catch and digest by specific devices developed in them. J.D. Hooker suggested that the digestion of carnivorous plants is like that of animals.


COMMON AREAS WHERE THESE PLANTS GROW

These plants commonly grow in areas where nitrogen is deficient due to unfavourable atmosphere for nitrifying bacteria but favourable atmosphere for denitrifying bacteria.


SOME COMMON EXAMPLES

1. PITCHER PLANT

In Pitcher plant leaf is modified into pitcher like structure which is insect trapping organ.

EXAMPLES

Common examples are :

* Nepenthes

* Sarracenia

* Cephalotus

* Neliamphora

* Darling tonia


2. DORSERA INTERMEDIA OR SUNDEW

This plant has half a dozen prostrate radiating leaves, which bear hair like tentacles each with gland at its tip. The insects attracted by plant odour are digested.


3. DIONAEA MUSCIPULA OR VENOUS FLY TRAP

Most well known of all carnivorous plants. It has a resette of prostrate radiating leaves with inflorescence in the centre. The petiole of leaf is winged and lamina has two halves, with mid-rib in the centre. Each half has 12-20 teeth. In the centre of dorsal surface of lamina are numerous secretory glands, three hairs projecting out, which are sensitive to touch.


4.ALDROVANDA (WATER FLY TRAP)

It is a root less aquatic plant with floating stem. It has ressettes of modified leaves, which have two lobed mobile lamina having teeth at the margin and sensitive jointed hairs and glands on the surface.

5. UTRICULARIA OR BLADDER WORT

It is a root less plant having branched slender stem. Leaves are also much divided and some leaflets are modified into bladder like traps of about 1/16 to 1/8 inches in diameter.

Human Digestive System

Friendsmania.net


DIGESTION

“It is the process by which large complex insoluble organic food substances are broken down into smaller simpler soluble molecules by the help of enzymes”.

Digestion in man is mechanical (break down) as well as chemical (enzymatic hydrolysis)


NUTRITION

HETEROTROPHIC, i.e. man is dependent upon ready made food.


TYPE OF DIGESTION

EXTRACELLULAR, i.e. digestion takes place outside the cells but within GIT.


TYPE OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

TUBE LIKE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, i.e,

* Digestive cavity is separated from body cavity. 

* It has both openings, mouth and anus. 

* “Complete” digestive sytem 

This one way tube is known as GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)


ORGANS OF GASTRO-INTESTINAL SYSTEM

The adult digestive system is a tube approximately 4.5m (15ft) long and comprises of


(A) G I T

1. MOUTH

2. ORAL CAVITY -> TEETH, TONGUE

3. PHARYNX

4. OESOPHAGUS

5. STOMACH

6. SMALL INTESTINE -> DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM

7. LARGE INTESTINE -> CAECUM, RECTUM, COLON

8. ANUS -> PAROTID


(B) ASSOCIATED GLANDS

1. SALIVARY GLANDS -> SUBLINGUAL, SUBMANDIBULAR

2. LIVER

3. PANCREAS


(1) MOUTH

The anterior or proximal opening of gut, which is bounded anteriorly by lips. It opens into oral cavity.

FUNCTION

1. Lips close the mouth.

2. Lips also help in ingestion.


(2) ORAL CAVITY

It is a wide cavity supported by bones of skull


BOUNDARIES

* Cheeks form side walls. 

* Tongue forms floor 

* Palate forms roof 

* Jaws form roof boundary of mouth. 


+ JAWS

Upper jaw is fixed while lower jaw is moveable. Both jaws bear teeth.


CONTENT OF CAVITY

Teeth and Tongue


+ TEETH

“The hard calcified structures, meant for mastication (chewing)”

NUMBER OF SETS

Humans have 2 sets of teeth ® DIPHYODONT

(1) DECIDUOUS

The 20 teeth of first dentition, which are shed and replaced by permanent teeth.

(2) PERMEMANT

The 32 teeth of second dentition, which begin to appear in human at about 6 year of age. It consisting of 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars and 12 molars.

+ Molars are absent in deciduous set.

HETERDONT They are embedded in gums -> THECODONT


STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH

Each tooth consist of 3 parts

1. CROWN

2. NECK

3. ROOT


FUNCTIONS

1. Incisors are cutting and biting teeth. Their flat sharp edges cut food into smaller pieces.

2. Canines are pointed teeth and poorly developed in humans. They are used in tearing, killing and piercing the prey.

3. Premolars and Molars are grinders and used for crushing the food.

4. Mastication increases surface are of food for action of enzymes.

5. If one attempt to swallow a food particle too large to enter ocsophagus, it may block the trachea and may stop ventilation.


“DENTAL DISEASES”
PLAQUE

“A mixture of bacteria and salivary materials”

OR

* “A soft thin film of food debris, mucin and dead epithelial cells deposited on teeth, providing medium for growth of bacterias” 

* Plague plays an important role in development of dental caries, periodontal and gingival disease. Calcified plaque forms dental calculus. 


PERIODONTAL DISEASES

Accumulation of plaque causes inflammation of gums. Continuous inflammation may spread to the root of tooth and destroy peridental layer. Eventually tooth becomes loose and falls off or may have to be extracted.


DENTAL CALCULUS

Plaque combine with certain chemicals in saliva which become harden and calcified forming deposits of calculus which cannot be removed by brushing.


DENTAL CARIES

When bacteria of plaque converts sugar of food into acid, the enamel (hardest substance of body, covers dentin of crown of teeth) is dissolved slowly. When dentine and pulp are attached, produce toothache and loss of teeth.


FACTOR CAUSING DENTAL CARIES

* Prolonged exposure to sugary food stuff. 

* Disturbance of saliva composition 

* Lack of oral hygiene 

* Low levels of fluoride in drinking H2O 

PREVENTION

* Add ‘flouride’ in drinking H2O or milk 

* Take ‘flouride’ tablet 

* Use ‘flouride’ tooth paste. 


TONGUE

Tongue is a muscular fleshy structure forming floor of oral cavity. Tongue has

* a root 

* a tip and 

* a body 

It is attached posteriorly and free anteriorly


TASTE BUDS

Taste buds respond to sweet, salt, acid and bitter taste, only when these substances are dissolved in H2O of saliva.

Taste buds are most numerous on sides of vallate papillae. They are absent on mid dorsal region of oral part of tongue.

TONGUE PAPILLAE

Papillae are projections of mucous membrane which gives characteristic roughness to the tongue. These are of 3 types

* VALLATE PAPILLAE 

* FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE 

* FILLIFORM PAPILLAE 

FUNCTIONS

1. Its function is ‘Spoon-like’.

2. It mixes the masticated food with saliva

3. It helps in swalloing

4. It helps in sucking and testing food.


SALIVARY GLANDS

3 pairs of salivary glands.

(1) PAROTID

Lies at base of pinnae.

It is supplied by IX cranial nerve.

(2) SUB LINGUAL

* Lies at base of tongue. 

* Supplied by VII cranial nerve. 

(3) SUB MANDIBULAR

* Lies at base of lower jaw.
* Supplied by VII cranial nerve 

FUNCTION

These three pairs produce about 1.5dm3 of saliva each day.

These glands are supplied by Parasympathetic Nervous System. Fibers of parasympathic N.S lie in Cranial nerves. These nerves increase their secretion.


SALIVA

It is a watery secretion containing 95% H2O, some mucous, amylase and Lysozyme enzyme.

* Salivation is brought about by “Parasympathetic Nervous System.” 

* Saliva is secreted in response to the sight, thought, taste or smell of food. 

FUNCTIONS

1. Mucous of Saliva moistens and lubricates the food particles prior to swallowing.

2. Salivary Amylase or Ptylin begins digestion of starch, first to dextrins and then to maltose (dissacharide).

3. Lysozyme destroys the oral cavity pathogen bacteria. It has a cleansing action.

4. Water in Saliva, dissolve some of the molecules in food particle then they react with chemo receptors in taste buds, giving sensation of taste, hence, the H2O enables taste buds to respond.

5. Saliva is fully saturated with calcium and this prevents decalcification of teeth.

6. Saliva makes speech possible by moistening the mouth; it is not possible to talk if the mouth is dry.

7. It acts as a lubricant and enables a bolus (a rounded mass of semi-solid, partially digested food particles stick together by mucus) to be formed. The tongue pushes bolus into pharynx.


3. PHARYNX

The musculo-membranous passage between mouth and posterior nares and the larynx and oesophagus.
OPENINGS

It contains opening of oesophagus, glottis, Eustachian tube and internal nostrils.
PARTS OF PHARYNX

NASOPHARYNNX

The part above the level of soft palate is NASOPHARYNX, which communicates with auditory tube.

OROPHARYNX

It lies between soft palate and upper edge of the epiglottis.

HYPOPHARYNX

It lies below the upper edge of epiglottis and opens into larynx and oesophagus.
FUNCTION -> SWALLOWING

Swallowing in its initial stages is voluntary but involuntary afterwards.

MECHANISM

1. As the bolus of food moves into the pharynx, the soft palate is elevated and lodges against the back wall of pharynx sealing the nasal cavity and preventing food from entering it.

2. The swallowing center inhibit respiration, raises the larynx and closes the glottis (opening between vocal cords), keeping food from getting into trachea.

3. As the tongue forces the food further back into the pharynx, the bolus tilts the epiglottis backward to cover the closed glottis.

4. This pharyngeal act of swallowing lasts about 1 second.


4. OESOPHAGUS

This is a narrow muscular tube of about 25cm long. It connects pharynx to stomach. It passes through the thoracic cavity and penetrates the diaphragm, then it joins the stomach a few cms below the diaphragm.
MUSCLES OF OESOPHAGUS

* Upper-one third is surrounded by skeletal muscles. 

* Lower two-third is surrounded by smooth muscles. 

SPHINCTERS (MUSCULAR VALVES)

1. Skeletal muscles, just below pharynx surrounding oesophagus form Upper Oesophageal Sphincter.

2. Smooth muscles in last 4 cm of oesophagus forms Lower Oesophageal Sphincter. It seals the exit of food.

FUNCTION

It conveys the food or fluid by Peristalsis.
PERISTALSIS

Alternate rhythmic contraction and relaxation waves in the muscle layers surrounding a tube are called Peristaltic Waves.

It is the basic propulsive movement of GIT.
STIMULUS

Distention of oesophagus.
TIMING

An oesophageal peristaltic wave takes about ‘9 sec’ to reach stomach. Bolus is moved toward stomach by progressive peristaltic wave which compresses the lumen and forces the bolus ahead of it.
ANTI-PERISTALSIS

Peristalsis in opposite direction, i.e. from stomach towards pharynx.
STIMULUS

* Early stages of GIT irritation. 

* Over distention. 

VOMITING

Anti peristalsis begins to occur, some minute before vomiting appears. The initial events of anti peristalsis may occur repeatedly without vomiting, called RETCHING. 1. Vomiting begins with a deep inspiration, closure of glottis and elevation of soft palate.

2. Abdominal and thoracic muscles contract, raising intradominal pressure.

3. Stomach is squeezed, lower oesophageal sphincter relaxes allowing expulsion of stomach content into oesophagus in form of VOMITUS.


5 OESOPHAGUS

Stomach is a hollow, muscular, distensible bag like organ.

LOCATION

Lying below the diaphragm on the left side of abdominal cavity.

STRUCTURE

It has 3 regions.
1 CARDIAC REGION

This is the anterior region which joins the oesophagus through a cardiac sphincter. It has muscous glands which helps in lubrication of food.
2 BODY

The middle portion is body of stomach. The part to the left and above the entrance of oesophagus is called FUNDUS of stomach. Body of stomach contain gastric glands. Gastric glands contain 3 types of cells.
MUCOUS CELLS

* These cells are present at opening of gastric glands and secrete mucous. 

* It lubricates the food and passage. 

* It also protects the epithelium from self digestion by pepsin. 

OXYNTIC / PARIETAL CELLS

* They lie deeper within the glands and secrete dilute HCl having a pH of 1.5 – 2.5. 

* Kills microbes 

* Solublization of food particles. 

* Activate the inactive enzyme pepsinogen into Pepsin. 

CHIEF CELL / ZYMOGEN CELLS

* Deeper in the glands and secrete enzyme precursor Pepsinogen. 

* After converting into Pepsin, it acts upon proteins and convert them into short chain polypeptides, Peptones. 

The collective secretion of the above mentioned 3 cells is called as GASTRIC JUICE
PYLORIC REGION

The posterior region is the terminal narrow pyloric region or Antrum. It opens into duodenum through pyloric sphincter / pylorus.
ITS SECRETION -> GASTRIN

This region does not secrete acid. It secretes mucous, pepsinogen and a hormone GASTRIN. Endocrine cells which secrete GASTRIN are scattered throughout epithelium of antrum.
STIMULUS

Partially digested proteins.
ACTION

Activate gastric glands to produce gastric juices.
“RENIN”-ADDITIONAL ENZYME IN INFANT

In infants, RENIN is secreted which curdles the milk.


FUNCTION OF STOMACH

(1) STORAGE OF FOOD

Pylorus acts as a valve and retain food in the stomach for about 4 hours. Periodic relaxation of pylorus releases small quantities of chyme into duodenum.

(2) MECHANICAL DIGESTION

The weak peristaltic waves also called mixing waves move along the stomach wall once every 20 seconds. These waves not only mix the food with secretions but also move mixed contents forward.

(3) CHEMICAL DIGESTION

Gastric juice converts food to a creamy paste called CHYME.


6. SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine is a coiled tube approximately 6 meters long and 2.5 cm wide, leading from stomach to large intestine. It fills most of the abdominal cavity.
DIVISIONS

There are 3 divisions.


A. DUODENUM

It begins after pyloric stomach and ends at jejunum. Its length is about 30cm.

SECRETION

Pancreatic juice from pancreas by pancreatic duet and bile from gall bladder by common bile duct act on chyme from stomach. Both ducts open via a common opening in duodenum.
BILE
SYNTHESIS, STORAGE AND SECRETION

Bile is made in liver and enters the duodenum via the bile duct. It stores in gall bladder.
COLOUR

Bile is yellow in colour but changes to green due to exposure to air.
CONSTITUENT

* Water. 

* Bile Salts 

+ BILE SALTS

These are sodium salts of compounds of cholestrol. NaHCO3 is also present which neutralizes the acidity of gastric juice and make the chyme alkaline.

The main bile salts are for emulsification of fats.

EMULSIFICATION Break down of large fat particles into small droplets so that they can mix well with H2O to form emulsions.

+ BILE PIGMENTS

BILIRUBIN and BILIVERDIN are excretory products formed by breakdown of haemaglobin of worn out RBCs in the liver.
ACTION OF ‘CHOLECYSTOKININ (CCK)’

CCK is a hormone and produced by cells of small intestine.

STIMULI FOR HORMONE RELEASE

Fatty food in duodenum.

ACTION

CCK is released in blood and reaches to gall bladder and causes it to contract. Due to contraction of gall bladder, bile enters the duodenum.
‘PANCREATIC JUICE’

Pancreatic juice is produced in pancreas by its exocrine function and secreted via pancreatic duct. It is a colourless fluid.

ACTION OF SECRETIN

Secretion is also a hormone and produced by cells of small intestine.

STIMULI

Acid (HCl) carried with chyme in small intestine.

ACTION

It increases the secretion of pancreatic juice and also increases bicarbonate secretion in bile.

CONSTITUENTS

(1) TRYPSIN (PROTEASE)

It is secreted in an inactive form called Trypsinogen which is activated by action of an enzyme produced by duodenum called enterokinase.

ACTION

Break proteins and long chain polypeptides into small peptide fragments.

(2) CHYMOTRYPSIN (PROTEASE)

It is also secreted in inactive form, Chymotrypsinogen which is converted into chymotrypsin by action of Trypsin.

ACTION

Converts casein (milk proteins) into short chain peptide.

(3) AMYLASE

It is similar to salivary amylase. It acts on polysaccharides (Glycogen and Starch) and convert them into maltose (a disaccharide).

(4) LIPASE

It acts on emulsified fat droplets. It splits off lipid into fatty acid and glycerol, hance the digestion of fat is completed in duodenum.


(B) JEJUNUM

It extends from duodenum to illeum. It is 2.4 meters long. Here the digestion of food is completed.

COLLECTION OF PEPTIDASES, EREPSIN

Peptidases complete the breakdown of polypeptide into amino acids.

NUCLEOTIDASE

It converts nucleotides into nucleoside. End products of digestion, i.e, monosaccharide and A.As are liberated in lumen of small intestine for absorption in ileum.


(C) ILEUM

It is the last and longest part of small intestine. Its length is about 3.6 meters long. It contains digested food in true solution form.

STRUCTURE

The inner wall (Mucosa and Submucosa) of small intestine is thrown into various folds. These folds have finger-like microscopic projections called villi.

VILLI

Each villus is lined with epithelial cells having microvilli on their free surfaces.

Their walls are richly supplied with blood vessels and lymph vessels called Lacteals. Some smooth muscles are also present in villi.


MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION

Major function of ileum is absorption of digested food, which is facilitated by highly folded inner wall of intestine with villi on their surfaces.

This increases the absorptive area. Villi are able to move back and forth due to muscle fibers in them.

* The monosaccharide and A.As are absorbed into blood capillaries by Diffusion or Active Transport. 

* Fatty acid and glycerol enter epithelial cells of villi, covert into triglycerols and enters Lacteals and pass into blood stream. 


BLOOD DRAINAGE OF INTESTINE

All capillaries converge to form hepatic portal vein, which delivers absorbed nutrients to liver.


7. LARGE INTESTINE

Small intestine opens into large intestine, which is a large diameter tube about 6.5 cm. It is not coiled by relatively has 3 straight segments.

+ Caecum

+ Colon

+ Rectum


+ CAECUM

Caecum is a blind ended pouch placed in the lower right side of abdominal cavity. It gives a 10cm long finger like projection, Appendix. Appendix is a vestigial organ, i.e. an organ present in rudimentary form and has no function but has well developed function in ancestors.

FUNCTION

Symbiotic bacteria, present in caecum, help in digestion of cellulose, which is not digested by man, as enzyme for digestion is absent.


+ COLON

Colon is longest part and has 3 regions :

+ Ascending colon

+ Transverse Colon

+ Descending Colon

-> SIGMOID COLON is terminal part of Descending Colon.

FUNCTION

Inorganic salts, water and mineral absorbed in colon. Some metabolic waste products and excess calcium of body as salts are excreted into large intestine. Each day 500 ml of intestinal content enter the colon and during its passage the amount reduced to 150 ml due to absorption of H2O.


+ RECTUM

Rectum is last portion, it stores faeces for some time.

When the faeces enter into rectum, it brings about a desire for defecation. The process by which faeces passes out is called Egestion.


SYMBIOTIC BACTERIA

Many symbiotic bacteria in large intestine provide the body with a source of vitamin and A.As, especially vitamin B complex and K, which are absorbed in blood stream. Administration of Broad-spectrum antibiotics destroys these bacteria and a vitamin deficiency results, which is then make up by vitamin intakes.


8. ANUS

External opening of digestive system is ANUS.


SPHINCTERS

Two sphincters surround the anus:

+ Internal Sphinter -> made up of smooth muscle and under Autonomic control (involuntary control).

+ Outer Sphincter -> made up of skeletal muscle and under Somatic Control (voluntary control).


FAECUS

Faecus consists of:

Dead bacteria, cellulose, Plant fibers, dead mucosal cells, mucous, cholesterol, bile pigment derivatives and H2O.

(DIAGRAM “DIGESTIVE SYSTEM” FROM BOOK XI)


9. LIVER

Liver is the largest organ and gland of body. It weighs about 1.5 kg . It is also called ‘HEPAR’.


COLOUR

It is reddish brown in colour.


LOCATION

It lies below the diaphragm on right side.


LOBES OF LIVER

Liver has 2 lobes, i.e. Right and Left. Left is further divided into two lobes.
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER

‘AS A METABOLIC FACTORY’

It maintains the appropriate level of nutrients in blood and body. It is performed in 3 ways.

A. GLUCOSE METABOLISM

1. Additional (Surplus) Glucose is converted into Glycogen by action of INSULIN after every meal. This is called Glycogenesis.

2. Glycogen is splitted into Glucose for body needs. This is called Glycogenolysis.

3. New glucose for body requirement is formed by non-carbohydrate compounds. This is called Gluconeogenesis.

B. A.AS METABOLISM

A.As are also stored after deamination (removal of NH2 group), which forms Urea.

C. FATTY ACID METABOLISM

It also processes F.As and stores the products as Ketone Bodies, which are released as nutrients for active muscles.


‘AS A DETOXIFICATION CENTER’

Poisons and toxic substances, which can harm the body, are degraded into harmless compounds. It excrete out bile pigments and waste products.


‘AS A STORAGE ORGAN’

It stores vitamins and also produces proteins and coagulating factors of blood.


GALL BLADER

It lies on undersurface of liver, a pear shaped organ.

FUNCTION

It concentrates and stores the bile secreted by liver.


BILIARY TRACFT

Two hepatic ducts from liver bring bile and join the cystic duct from gall bladder. This form common bile duct, which joins Pancreatic duct coming from pancreas bringing pancreatic juice. These 2 ducts open into duodenum at same opening.


10.PANCREAS

A large elongated gland situated transversely behind the stomach, between spleen and duodenum.
PARTS OF PANCREAS

HEAD

It is the right extremity and directed downwards.

TAIL

Left extremity is transverse and terminates close to spleen.

BODY

The main portion in middle.
DUCT

Pancreatic duct opens into duodenum with common bile duct and delivers pancreatic juices.
WORKING AS A GLAND

It works both as an endocrine and exocrine gland.
ENDOCRINE PANCREAS

Endocrine part consists of ISLETS OF LANGERHANS.

The islets contain.

α cell (ALPHA)

Produce GLUCAGON which increases blood glucose level.

β cell (BETA)

Produce INSULIN which reduces blood glucose level.

Δ cell (DELTA)

Produce Somatostatin (SS) which inhibit the release of many harmones.

P P cells

Secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
EXOCRINE PANCREASE

The exocrine part consists of pancreatic acini. Acini are secretory unit that produce and secrete pancreatic juice into duodenum which contain enzymes essential to digestion.


DISORDERS OF ‘GIT’
(1) DIARRHOEA

Abnormal frequency and liquidity of fecal discharges. It is the rapid movement of fecal matter through large intestine.
CAUSES

ENTRITIS

It may be caused by infection of intestinal wall (mucosa) by a virus or bacteria. Due to infection, mucosa becomes irritated and motility of intestinal wall increases.

CHOLERA

Cholera is a bacterial disease caused by VIBRIO CHOLERA. It can cause diarrhoea. It causes extreme amount of HCO3- (bicarbonates ion) and Na and H2O to be secreted in faeces. It may causes death.

PSYCOGENIC DIARRHOEA

It is caused by nervous tension. In the young and elderly, diarrhoea may lead to a serious depletion of H2O and inorganic salts.


(2) DYSENTARY

Acute inflammation of intestines especially of the colon.
SYMPTOMS

Pain in abdomen, tenesmus (straining), frequent stool containing blood and mucus.
CAUSES

* PROTOZOA. (like amoebic dysentery) 

* PARASITIC WORMS. 

* BACTERIA. (like bacillary dysentery) 

* CHEMICAL IRRITANTS. 


(3) CONSTIPATION

Infrequent or difficult evacuation of faeces. OR Slow movement of faeces through large intestine.

Faeces becomes hard due to long time available for H2O absorption.
CAUSE

Irregular bowel habits that have developed through a life time of inhibition of normal defection reflaxes.
TREATMENT

* Laxatives are used 

* Substance which hold H2O with them 


(4) PILES

Also called HAEMORRHOIDS Varicose dialatation of veins occurring in relation to anus, resulting from a persistence increase in pressure.

EXTERNAL PILES

Venous dialatation covered with modified anal skin.

INTERNAL PILES

Dilatation of veins covered by mucous membrane.
CAUSE

CONSTIPATION

The pressure exerted to defecate stretches skin with vein and causes dilation.
PREVENTION

Can be avoided by regular habit of defecation and by use of fiber diet.


(5) DYSPEPSIA

Impairment of the power or function of digestion, usually applied to epigastria discomfort following meals.
CAUSE

May be due to peptic ulcer.
SYMPTOMS

* Heart burn. 

* Flatulence (distended with gas) 

* Anorexia, nausea, vomiting with or without abdominal pair. 

FUNCTIONAL / NON-ULCER DYSPEPSIA

Dyspepsia in which symptoms resemble those of peptic ulcer, although no ulcer is detectable. It is caused by disturbance in moter function of alimentary tract.


(6) PEPTIC ULCER

Since pepsin, is a protein digesting enzyme, it may digest the stomach wall, the first part of duodenum or rarely lower part of oesophagus where stomach juices frequently refluxes. This condition is called Peptic Ulcers.

* GASTRIC ULCERS 

* DUODENAL ULCERS 

CAUSES

* Excessive secretion of acid and pepsin. 

* It may be hereditary. 

* Psychogenic factors. 

COMPLICATIONS

Complications of peptic ulcers are perforation, haemorrhage and obstruction. INVESTIGATIONS

1. Acid output of stomach is studied.

2. Ulcers cavity may be shown up on X-rays after ingestion of insoluble barium sulphate (Barium meal).

3. It may be seen using optical instrument passed down through oesophagus (endoscopy)


(7) FOOD POISONING

Also called GASTRO-ENTRITIS
CAUSES

INFECTION

By bacteria, virus, protozoa. ‘Salmonella’ species are very common.

NON-INFECTIOUS

Allergy, irritating food or drink.
SYMPTOMS

Vomiting and diarrhoea within 48 hours.


(8) MAL NUTRITION

Any disorder of nutrition due to unbalanced diet or due to defective assimilation or utilization of foods.

An organism may be deficient or may receives excess of one or more nutrients for a long period of time.
UNDER NUTRITION

Deficiency is known as under-nutrition. It is most common problem of under developed countries.
OVER NUTRITION

Excess is known as over-nutrition. Obesity with heart problems and reduced life expactency are its symptoms and are more common in developed countries.


(9) OBESITY AND OVER WEIGHT

Increase in body weight beyond the limitation of skeletal and physical need as the result of accumulation (excessive) of fat in the body.

It is the most common nutritional disorder. It is most prevalent in middle age. It may be hereditary or family tendency over weight results in rate of mortality.


(10) ANOREXIA NERVOSA

Loss or lack of appetite for food is called Anorexia.

ANOREXIA NERVOSA

An eating disorder affecting young females, characterized by refusal to maintain a normal minimal body weight, intence fear of gaining body weight, intense fear of gaining weight or becoming obese. Sometimes accompanied by spontaneous or induced vomiting.


(11) BULIMIA NERVOSA

Exclusively found in women and the age of onset is slightly older than for anorexia.

Recurrent episodes (bouts) of binge (uncontrolled) eating. Lack of self control over eating during binges.

Attacks occur twice a week and involve rich foods such as cakes and chocolates and dairy products.

Digestive System of Cockroach

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Cockroach belongs to PHYLUM : ARTHROPODA CLASS : INSECTA / HEXAPODA

NUTRITION

OMNIVOROUS, i.e. It can eat any kind of organic matter. They search their food by antennae.


TYPE OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

TABULAR DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, i.e. straight slightly coiled dig tube, open at both ends, complete dig. system.


ORGANS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

+ ALIMENTARY CANAL
It is divisible into 3 parts
1. FORE GUT / STOMODAEUM 

• MOUTH

• BUCCAL CAVITY

• OESOPHAGUS

• CROP

• GIZZARD

2. MIDGUT / MESENTERON / VENTRICULUS 

• HEPATIC CAECA

3. HIND GUT / PROCTODAEUM 

• ILEUM

• COLON

• RECTUM

• ANUS

+ ASSOCIATED GLAND 

• SALIVARY GLANDS

1.FORE GUT


MOUTH

It lies at base of pre-oval cavity which is bounded by mouth part.
LABRUM / UPPER LIP
Appendage of 3rd head segment.
MANDIBLES
Appendage of 4th head segment. They help in mastication
MAXILLAE
Appendages of 5th head segment. They pick up and bring food.
LABIUM / LOWER LIP
Appendages of 6th head segment.
BUCCAL CAVITY

The mouth opens into buccal cavity which is short and receives the common duct of salivary glands.
Saliva cantain ‘AMYLASE’ which act upon carbohydrates.
OESOPHAGUS

Buccal cavity opens into pharynx which in turn opens into oesophagus which is a long and thin tube lying in thorax.
CROP

It is a large thin walled and pear shaped structure meant for storing food.
GIZZARD

Crop opens into thick walled, rounded gizzard with muscular chitins lining which is internally produced six teeth for grinding and straining the food.


2. MID-GUT

It is narrow, short and tubular portion originate from gizzard. At beginning it receives eight hepatic caeca hanging in haemocoel (body cavity filled with white colour blood), ending blindly but opening in gut.
ENZYMES FROM HEPATIC CAECA

They are lined by glandular cells, which secrete enzymes.
Enzymes from hepatic caeca and mid-gut flow back into crop where digestion takes place.
ENZYMES
1. PEDTIDASES AND TRYPSIN LIKE ENZYME -> digest proteins.
2. AMYLASES -> complete digestion of starches
3. LIPASE -> digestion of fats.
Digested food form a bolus and enclosed in a thin chitinous tube secreted by stomodael valve of gizzard. This covering is called PERITROPHIC MEMBRANE.
It is permeable to enzymes and digested food. This membrane protects the lining of mid gut from damage by hard indigestible components of food.
Digested food is absorbed in mid gut.


3. HIND-GUT

It has a cuticular ectodermal lining.
ILEUM

Short, narrow and muscular ileum. The beginning of ileum is marked by 60-70 fine and long, greenish yellow MALPHIGIAN TUBULES. (excretory in function)
COLON

Colon is long, wider and coiled portion of hind gut
RECTUM

Rectum is broad last part of hind gut. It absorbs H2O and conserves the much needed H2O from undigested food before expelling out the faeces.
ANUS

Anus is the last opening of digestive system by which hind gut opens to outside.
SALIVARY GLANDS

Salivary glands are 2 in number. each present on the sides of oesophagus. Saliva contain amylase for digestion of carbohydrates

Transport - XI Zoology

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* Circulatory System 

* Circulation of Blood 

* Lymphatic System 

* Immune System

Circulatory System

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HUMAN HEART 

INTRODUCTION
Heart, the most powerful organ in the circulatory system is conical, hollow & muscular organ, situated in middle mediastinum.


POSITION OF HEART

Heart lies in the thoracic cavity between the lungs slightly towards left, enclosed with in ribcage with the sternum in front & vertebral column behind.


SIZE & WEIGHT

The heart measures about 3 ½ Inches & weighs about 300 gm in males & 250 gm in females.


MAIN FUNCTION OF HEART

Heart works continuously like a muscular pump & pumps the blood to various parts of the body to meet their nutritive requirements.
COVERING OF HEART PERICARDIUM

Heart is surrounded by a double layered pericarcdium. The outer layer is called Fibrous pericardium & inner layer is called as serous pericardium.


PERICARDIAL FLUID 

Fluid is secreted in b/w the two layers of pericardium which is known as pericardial fluid.

FUNCTION
Pericardial fluid acts as LUBRICANT & reduces friction b/w heart walls & surrounding tissues during beating of heart.


STRUCTURE OF HEART

Human heart consists of four chambers.
CHAMBERS OF HEART

1. RIGHT ATRIUM

Right Atrium is the right upper chamber of heart & acts as thin walled low pressure pump.
OPENINGS (INLETS) OF RIGHT ATRIUM 
1. Superior Vena Cava
2. Anfenior Vena Cava
3. Coronary Sinus
FUNCTION
It receives venous blood from the whole body & pump it to the right ventricle through the right atrioventricular (tricuspid opening) valve.


2. LEFT ATRIUM

Left atrium is upper triangular chamber which is present posteriorly. It also acts as low pressure pump.
OPENINGS (INLETS) OF LEFT ATRIUM
Two pairs of pulmonary veins.
FUNCTION
It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through 4 pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left ventricle through the left atrioventricular orifice (mitral or bicuspid).


3. RIGHT VENTRICLE

Right ventricle is the right lower chamber of heart, which is triangular in shape.
OPENINGS OF RIGHT VENTRICLE 

• Tricuspids valve

• Pulmonary Aorta through pulmonary valve.

THICKNESS OF WALL 

• The wall of right ventricle is thinner than that of left ventricle in a ratio of 1:3

SIZE OF CAVITY 
Cavity of right ventricle is broader than left because of thin muscular walls, and both of these features are due to the fact that right ventricle has to pump the blood into lungs only against low pressure system (i.e. pulmonary circulation).

FUNCTION
Right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from right Atrium and pumps it to the lungs through pulmonary aorta for oxygenation.


4. LEFT VENTRICLE

Left ventricle is the most thick walled chamber and forms the apex of heart.
OPENING OF LEFT VENTRICLE 

• Bicuspid or Mitral valve

• Systemic Aorta through aortic valve.

THICKNESS OF WALL
The walls of left ventricle are 3 times thicker than those of right ventricle. Blood pressure is 6 times high.
SIZE OF CAVITY
The cavity of left ventricle is narrower than the right ventricle because of more muscular walls. It is due to the fact that left ventricle has to pump the blood to the entire body against high pressure system (Systemic Circulation).
FUNCTION
It receives oxygenated blood from left atrium & pumps it into the aorta.


INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF VENTRLES

Interior of ventricles show two parts
1. Rough in flowing part
2. Smooth out flowing part


1. ROUGH PART

TRABECULAE CARNEAE 
Inflowing part of each ventricle is rough due to presence of muscular ridges called as Trabeculae carneae.


2. SMOOTH PART

Out flowing part of each ventricle is smooth which gives origin to pulmonary trunk in right ventricle & Ascending Aorta in left ventricle.

PAPILLARY MUSCLES
Papillary muscles are the type of Trabeculae carneae being attached by their bases to ventricular walls, & their apices are connected to, the cusps of valves through chorda tendinae.

CHORDA TENDINAE:
These are delicate fibrous chords, which connect the papillary muscles to the cusps of Atriovertritcular valves.

FUNCTION
Chorda Tendinae don’t left the valves open back into the atria when the ventricles contract.
SEPTUM OF HEART

1. INTERATRIAL SEPTUM

Internally, the right & left atria are separated by a vertical membranous septum called as Interatrial septum.
2. INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM:

The right & left verticals are also separated by a thick muscular septum called as Interventricular septum.
3. ATRIOVENTRICULAR SEPTUM 

Atria lie above & behind the ventricles & are separated from ventricles by Atrioven-tricular septum.


HEART VALVES

Heart possesses two types of valves, which regulate the flow of blood with in the heart.


TYPES OF HEART VALVES

1. Atrioventricular valves -> Bicuspid, Tricuspid
2. Semilunar vlaves -> Aortic valve, Pulmonary valve


1. ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES 

INTRODUCTION 
Valves, which are present in b/w the Atria & ventricles are called Atrioventricular valves.
TYPES OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES

They are of two types.
1. Bicuspid or Mitral
2. Tricuspid.

1. BICUSPID OR MITRAL VALVE
Blood flows from left Atrium to the left ventricle through left atrioventricular on orifice, which is guarded by bicuspid or Mitral valves.
CUSPS 
It has tow (2) cusps so it is called as bicuspid.

2.TRICUSPID VALVE
Blood flows from right Atrium to the Right ventricle through right Atrioventricular orifice, which is guarded by Tricuspid.
CUSPS
It has 3 cusps so it is called as TRICUSPID.


2. SEMILUNAR VALVES

This is the second category of heart valves, which guard the emergence of pulmonary & systemic Aorta.
TYPES OF SEMILUNAR VALVES

It has Two Types:
1. Aortic Valve
2. Pulmonary Valve

1. AORTIC VALVE==
This valve guards the Aortic orifice in left ventricle
CUSPS
It consists of 3 Semilunar cusps.

2. PULMONARY VALVE
This valve guards the pulmonary orifice in right ventricle.
CUSPS 
It also consists of 3 semi lunar cusps.
FUNCTIONS OF VALVES

Heart valves maintain unidirectional flow of the blood & prevents its regurgitation in the opposite direction

Circulation of Blood

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CARDIAC CYCLE

Sequence of events which take pace during completion of one heart beat is called “Cardiac Cycle”
PHASES

(I) DIASTOLE

It is resting period of heart chambers.

II) SYSTOLE

During which heart’s chambers contract. In cardiac cycle, blood is circulated in whole body.


TYPES OF CIRCULATION
PULMONARY CIRCULATION

In pulmonary circulation following events take place.


RT. ATRIAL SYSTOL

First the blood from whole systems of body, except lungs enter in right Atrium through superior and Inferior vena cavae into the right atrium by atiral systole, blood comes into right ventricle from right atrium via Tricuspid valve.


RT. VENTRICLE SYSTOLE

After coming of blood into the Rt. Ventricle, it goes to the lungs via pulmonary trunk by ventricular systole, for oxygenation of blood by passing through pulmonary valve.


SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

In systemic circulation, following events take place.


LEFT ATRIAL SYSTOLE

When oxygenated blood comes into left atrium, then left atrial sytole causes blood to enter left ventricle through bicuspid valve


LEFT VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE

When blood reaches here it sends into aorta through aortic valve to provide blood to body systems.


CARDIAC OUTPUT

The blood volume pump per minute by left ventricle into the systemic circulation


HEART BEAT

The contraction of heart chambers are known heart beat which are regular, rhythmic.

Ventricular systole is LUB

Ventricular diastole is DUB


TIME FOR HEART BEAT

0.8 sec is time for one heart beat.


CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF HEART

It consists of

1.AV-NODE

2.SA-NODE

3)AV-BUNDLE

4) PURKINJI FIBERS.


1. SA-NODE

SA NODE found near upper end of superior vena cava in RT. atrium


PARTS

1. Specialized cardiac Muscles.

2. Autonomic Nerve endings.


FUNCTIONS

It Initiates the contraction of heart chambers through impulses & also transmit to AV node.


2. AV- NODE

It is found in lower end of RT. Atrium. Structurally it is smilar to SA-NODE


FUNCTION

It transmit nerve impulses to ventricles for contraction rhythmically.


3. AV-BUNDLE

AV BUNDLE are the fibers originate from AV node. The bundle divided into Right AV bundle, Left AV bundle


FUNCTION

It transmit nerve impulses to ventricles.


4. PURKINJI FIBERS

AV bundles red divided into small fibres which penetrate the ventricle wall also known as purkinji fibers / Bundle of His small thin fibers.

LEUKEMIA

DEFINATION

“The malignant disorder of increase number of abnormal leucocytes in blood.”


CAUSE

The cause of leukemia is unknown.


FACTORS

Factors associated with leukemia are

* Ionizing Radiation 

* Cytotoxic drugs. 

* Retroviruses. 

* Genetic 


EFFECTS OF DISEASE

* In result of leukemia, normal leucocytes counts become less. 

* This is progressive, and fatal condition which leads to heamorrhage or infection 


THALASSEMIA

DEFINITION

“Genetically impaired globin chains formation leads to impaired or defected formation of hemoglobin.”


GENETIC DISEASE

Thalassemia is a genetic disorder, it may be

1. Hetrozygous /Mild thalassemia:

2. Homozygous.


TYPE

* BETA - Thalassemia 

* α - Thalassemia 

BETA-THALASSEMIA

When globin chain is impaired or defected. It is most common one.

ALPHA-THALASSEMIA

when α-thalassemia globin chain of (HB) hemoglobin is defected.


KINDS OF THALASSEMIA

THALASSEMIA MINOR

When thalassemia is of heterozygous type with mild anemia.

THALASSEMIA MAJOR

When thalassemia is of homozygous type with profound hypochromic anemia. It is more common in children & results with enlargement of kidney.


REMEDY

The only remedy is transfusion of blood at regular intervals.


CVD CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Diseases of heart, blood vessels and blood circulation are generally term as CVD.


ATHEROSCLEROSIS

The disease of arterial wall with lose of elasticity, thickness of inner wall causing narrowing of lumen, results in impairing of blood flow.


ATHEROMATOUS PLAQUES

The narrowing is due to formation of fatty lesions called atheromatous plaque in inner lining of arteries.


COMPONENTS OF PLAQUE

These plaques consist of

* LDL-LOW DENSITY LIPO PROTEINS 

* DECAYING MUSCLES CELLS 

* FIBROUS TISSUE 

* PLATELETES 

* CLUMP OF BLOOD 


CAUSES

Smoking, Hypertension, Obesity, Diabetes (Severe), family history of arterial disease


EFFECTS

Atherosclerosis produces no symptoms until the damage to artery is so severe that it restricts blood flow.


ANGINA PECTORIS

If blood flow to heart muscles is restricted causes (cell damage) necrosis called angina pectoris. Pain in chest, arm, or jaws usually during exercise.


THROMBUS FORMATION

The formation of blood clot with in the intact blood vessel initiated by atheromatous plaque.


REASON FOR THROMBUS FORMATION

Due to formation athromatous plaque loss of elasticity, intact blood vessel get destroyed, blood from vessel wall comes out & later change to blood clot and blocks the lumen of small arteries.


RESULT OF THROMBUS FORMATION

Initially thrombus block the lumen partially result in decrease blood flow to organs & leading to impairment of physiology of organs. Later on, thrombus blocks the lumen completely so due to complete loss of blood supply, cells damage occur.


CORONARY THROMBOSIS

Type of thrombosis when narrowing of lumen occurs in coronary blood vessels due to formation of clot.


EFFECT

Occulsion of coronary atery causes myocardial infarction and heart attack.


HEAMORRHAGE

The escaping of blood from intact blood vessels.


==STROKE Most dangerous type of heamorrhage is that of brain which results in paralysis or strokes.


HAEMATOMA

The accumalation of blood in interstitial spaces known as haematoma.

This will lead to edema.


STROKE

DEFINITION

The damage to the part of brain caused by, restriction in blood supply or leakage of blood outside the vessels.


CHARACTERISTICS

Impairment of sensation, movement & function controlled by damage part of brain.


CAUSES

* Hypertension 

* Atherosclerosis 


HEMIPLEGIA

Damage to any, one cerebral hemisphere can cause weakness or paralyses of one side of body called hemiplegia


PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

Blood pressure should be with in normal range through proper diet. Salt should be used in less quantities exercise should be the regular habit. Smoking must be avoided. Person life should be free of worries.


BLOOD VESSELS

DEFINITION

"The closed vessels or tubes through which transporting medium or blood circulate with in body called “blood vessels”.
TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS

1. Arteries.

2. Capillaries.

3. Veins.

ARTERIES

DEFINITION

Thick walled blood vessels which carry blood from heart to the organs of body.


LAYERS

It consists of three layers.

1. Tunica Externa/ Adventitia

2. Tunica Media

3. Tunica Intima


1-TUNICA EXTERNA

It is thin but tough layer, having abundant amount of collagen fibers. It is outer most layer.


2-TUNICA MEDIA

The middle layer has smooth muscle fibers & elastin fibers. It is the thickest layer.


3-TUNICA INTIMA

It consists of squamous endothelium.


LUMEN

Thick walled vessels & having smaller lumen than that of veins except arteries of brain & related to cranium having large lumen.

SEMILUNAR VALVES

They are not present in arteries.

BRANCHES - DIVISIONS

Aorta divides into large arteries, large arteries into smaller arteries, smaller arteries into arterioles, then they give rise to capillary.

At arteriole level, small sphincters are present which are known as PRE-CAPILLARY SPHINCTER.

SPHINCTER

FUNCTION

They are for regulating the diastolic pressure.

CHARACTERSTICS

* Arteries are elastic so during systolic pressure, they do not rupture and dilate. 

* During ceasement/ stopage of systolic pressure of heart, arteries contract & supply even flow of blood. 

* The arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary arteries. 


VEINS

DEFINITION

The thin walled blood vessels that drian blood from body parts/organs into heart called veins.


LAYERS

* Tunica Externa 

* Tunica Media 

* Tunica Intima 


1. TUNICA EXTERNA

Thickest layer in veins. It contains collagen, elastin and smooth muscles cells.


2. TUNICA MEDIA

Not thicker as that of arteries. Elastic tissues and small smooth muscle.


3. TUNICA INTIMA

Contains endothelial cells layer.


LUMEN

It has large lumen and thin wall.


SEMILUNAR VALVES

They are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood in the influence of gravity.


TRIBUTARIES

Veninules -> small veins -> large veins -> vena cava.


BLOOD PRESSURE

In veins blood pressure is low and are non pulsatile.


CHARACTERISTICS

The blood flows slowly and smoothly in veins. Veins are superficial and collapse when empty.


CAPILARIES

The intimate microscopic closed channels of both arterial & veinous interconnected network is called capillaries.


DIAMETER

Capillaries are extremely narrow in diameter of about 7-10 μ.


LAYERS

Capillaries are thin walled vessels & contains single layer of endothelium which offers small resistance in transport of material across the capillary wall.


FUNCTION

Through diffusion and active transport of oxygen is transported to tissues & CO2 to capillaries. Nitrogenous waste is filtered through the capillaries into excretory tubules.


BLUE BABIES (CYANOSIS)

Blue baby is a layman terminology. In medical science it is known as cyanosis.


DEFINITION

The term cyanosis” means the blueish discolouration of the skin & mucous membrane due to excessive cone of reduced (deoxygenated haemoglobin) in the blood & it appears when reduced Hb conc in capillaries is more than 5 gm/dl of blood. The reduced Hb has an intense dark blue purple colour that is transmitted through the skin.


MOST COMMON CAUSE OF CYANOSIS

Although there are various other causes of cyanosis but the most common cause is CONGENITAL CYANOTIC HEART DISEASE.


BASIC CAUSE OF CYANOSIS

In congenital heart diseases, there is an abnormal connection b/w right and left side of heart, which permits the large amount of unoxygenated venous blood to bypass the pulmonary capillaries & dilute the oxygenated blood in systemic arteries i.e RIGHT TO LEFT SHUNT, which results in cyanosis.


SOME EXAPLES OF CONGENITAL HEART DISEASES

* Some congenital heart diseases which are responsible for the abnormal connection between right and left sides of heart are as follows. 

* ATRIAL SEPTUM DEFECT (ASD) 

* VENTRICULAR SETPUM DEFECT (VSD) 

* PERSISTANT DUCTUS ARTEROSUS 

* In all these conditions, blood begins to flow from the aorta (left side) into pulmonary arteries (right side) & the people donot show cyanosis until late in life when heart fails or lungs become congested. 


TETRALOGY OF FALLOT (RIGHT –TO-LEFT SHUNT)

It is the most common cause of cyanosis or blue baby in which aorta originates from right ventricles rather than left & receives deoxygenated blood.

Lymphatic System

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DEFINITION

A System of blind vessels (lymphatic) that drains lymph from all over the body back into blood stream is called lymphatic system OR Lymphatic System is essentially a drainage system, which reinforces the venous drainage. There is no circulation i.e it is a unidirectional flow towards heart.


MAIN FUNCTION OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

All body tissues are bathed in a watery fluid derived from the blood stream. This intercellular or tissue fluid is formed when blood passes trough the capillaries. The capillary walls are permeable to all components of blood except the R.B.C’s & blood proteins. The fluid passes from the capillary into the intercellular spaces as the inter-cellular or tissue fluid. About 85% of the tissue fluid returns into the blood at the venous end of capillary. The rest 15 % of tissue fluid drains into lymphatic capillaries as lymph along with W.B.C’s, cell debris & micro organism like Bacteria , are transported back to the heart through lymphatic system.


COMPONENTS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Lymphatic System Consists of
1. Lymph
2. Lymphatic tissues
3. Lymphatic vessels or Lymphatics
4. Lymph nodes (type of lymphatic tissue)


DETAILS OF COMPONENTS

1. LYMPH

DEFINITION
“Lymph is the name given to the tissue fluid once it has entered a lymphatic vessel. OR It can be defined as “Colour less body fluid that contains lymphocytes (agranular WBC’S), small proteins & fats”.

EXPLANATION 
Lymph is a medium of exchange between blood & body cells. It takes the fluid substances from cell of tissues & intercellular spaces, which cannot penetrate the blood capillaries.


2.LYMPHATIC TISSUES

DEFINITION
“Lymphatic tissues are a type of connective tissues that contain large no. of lymphocytes” 

ORGANS THAT CONTAIN LYMPHATIC TISSUES
Lymphatic tissue is organized into following structures (organs). 

• Lymph nodes

• Thymus

• Spleen

• Tonsils

• Some of the patches of tissues in vermiform appendix & in small intestine.

FUNCTION 
Lymphatic tissue is essential for immunologic defenses of the body against viruses & bacteria.
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3. LYMPHATICS

DEFINITION
Lymphatic vessels or lymphatics are blind tubes that assist the cardiovascular system in removal of tissue fluid from tissues spaces of the body, the vessels then return the fluid to the blood.

AREAS WHERE LYMPHATIC ARE NOT PRESENT:
Lymphatics are present in all tissues & organs of the body except. 

• Central Nervous System

• The eye ball

• Internal Ear

• Epidermis of Skin

• Cartilage & bone

TYPES
Two Types of Lymphatics are there:-
SMALL - LYMPH CAPILLARIES
LARGE - LYMPH VESSELS.

1. LYMPH CAPILLARIES
DEFINITION
“Lymph capillaries are a network of thin walled, anastomosing, microscopic vessels which are closed towards the tissue sinuses & drain the Lymph from tissues."

2. LYMPH VESSELS
DEFINATION
The capillaries are in turn drained by lymph tubes having larger diameters & beaded appearance, called the Lymph vessels.
These vessels contain smooth muscles in them as well as Internal valves to prevent the back flow of Lymph. The Lymph circulates through the Lymph vessels by the contraction of surrounding skeletal muscles in one direction (towards the heart). These vessels converge into collecting ducts i.e right
Lymphatic duct & thoracic duct that drain into large veins at the root of neck.


4. LYMPH NODES

DEFINITION 
“Lymph nodes are lymphoid tissue which are present through out the course of Lymphatics, through which the lymph must passes”

INTERNAL STRUCTURE 
Each node consists of a thin, fibrous, outer capsule & an inner mass of lymphoid tissue.

AFFERENT VESSELS
Several small Lymphatics which carry the lymph into the lymph node are referred to as “Afferent vessels.”

EFFERENT VESSEL 
A single large vessel which carry the lymph away from the node is called “Efferent vessel”

FUNCTION
Lymph nodes act as filters that trap the microorganisms & other foreign bodies in the lymph. The Lymphocytes & macro-phages present here, neutralize & engulf the microorganisms, respectively.


MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

From Text Book Pg. 379.
EDEMA

DEFINITION
“Whenever the tissue fluid accumulates rather than being drained into the blood by the lymphatic system, tissue & body cavities become swollen. This condition is known as “Edema”.
TYPES OF EDEMA

There are two types of Edema.
1. INTRACELLULAR
2. EXTRACELLULAR


1. INTRACELLULAR EDEMA

“Accumulation of excess of fluid within the cells causing cellular swelling is called “Intra cellular Edema. It usually occurs after severe extracellular Edema.


2. EXTRACELLULAR EDEMA

"Excess fluid accumulation in extra cellular spaces is called Extracellular Edema. "
It is the most commonly occurring form of Edema.


FACTORS CAUSING EDEMA

Any factor that increases the tissue fluid high enough than normal value can cause excess tissue fluid volume causing edema. Some of these factor are as follows. 

• High blood pressure

• Kidney failure

• Hart failure & etc.

CAUSES OF EDEMA

Following are three main causes of Edema.
1. HYPOPROTEINEMIA (SEVERE DIETARY PROTEIN DEFICIENCY)
When body is starving for Amino acids, it consumes its own blood proteins. This reduces the osmotic potential of the blood causing tissue fluid to accumulate in body tissues rather than being drawn back into capillaries, resulting in Edema.
2. LYMPHATIC OBSTRUCITON (COMMONEST CAUSE –FILARIASIS )
Another cause of edema is lymphatic obstruction, which results in more & more protein collection in the local tissue fluid hence, the increased volume. Commonest cause of lymphatic obstruction is FILARIASIS (infection by NEMOTODES) such condition is also called as “Elephantiasis” (because of swollen legs).
3. INCREASED PERMEABILITY OF CAPILLARIES (CAUSES-BURNS & ALLERGIC REACTIONS)
Sometimes the permeability of capillaries increase due to burns or allergic reactions, so blood proteins & plasma come out of capillaries & enter the tissue fluid thus causing Edema.

Immune System

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IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

“The ability of human body to resist almost all types of micro-organisms, their toxins if any, foreign cells & abnormal cells of the body is termed as “Immunity”


IMMUNOLOGY

DEFINITION

“The study of functioning & disorders of Immune system is termed as “Immunology”.


IMMUNE SYSTEM

Immunity is conferred to animals through the activities of the Immune System, which combats infectious agents.

DEFINITION

“Immune System is a collection of cells & proteins that work to protect the body from potentially harmful, infectious micro-organisms”
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM

Protection of body from all types of micro organisms & toxins that tend to damage the tissues and organs of body.
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS

Immune system also play important role in:

* Control of cancer 

* Allergy 

* Hypersensitivity 

* Rejection problems when organs or tissues are transplanted. 

DIVISIONS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM

* Immune system can be divided into two functional divisions: 

1. Innate Immunity System

2. Acquired Immunity System
INNATE IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

“The NON SPECIFIC type of immunity which result from general processes , rather than from processes directed at specific disease organism (Such as antigen –antibody reaction) is called. INNATE OR NATURAL IMMUNITY & the system which is responsible for this type of immunity is called Innate IMMUNITY System.


TYPES OF BARRIERS PROVIDED BY INNATE IMMUNITY SYSTEM

* This system provides two types of barriers: 

* Physical Barrier 

* Chemical Barrier 

PHYSICAL BARRIERS

* SKIN 

* MUCOUS MEMBRANE & etc. 

CHEMICAL BARRIERS

* Lysozyme 

* Gastric juice (Acidic secretion of stomach) & etc. 


FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE

Skin, Mucous membrane & their secretions act as “First line of Defence”

1. SKIN

The intact skin provides an impenetrable barrier to the vast majority of infectious agents.


2. MUCOUS MEMBRANES

Most of the micro-organisms can enter only through the mucous membranes that lines the digestive, respiratory & urogenital tracts. However these areas are protected by movements of mucous & secretions (e.g Lysozyme in tears) to destroy many microbs.


3. ACIDIC SECRETIONS

Most of he microorganisms present in food or trapped in swallowed mucus from the upper respiratory tracts are destroyed by highly acidic gastric juice of stomach.


SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE

If some how micro-organisms are able to penetrate the outer layer of the skin or mucous membrance, they encounter a second line of Defence offered by Innate Immunity system.

It is non specific & comprises of

1. PHAGOCYTES

2. ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS

3. INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

1. PHAGOCYTES

Phagocytes are certain type of WBC’S which can injest internalize & destroy the particles including infectious agents.
EXAMPLES OF PHAGOCYTIC CELLS

* NEUTROPHILS 

* MACROPHAGES 


NEUTROPHILS

Neutrophils (Polymorphonuclear Neutrophiles are short lived phagocytic cells which can ingest the bacteria or any foreign matter very actively.


MACROPHAGES (BIG EATERS)

The other phagocytic cells, the MONOCYTE can develop into large LONG-LIVED MACRO PHAGES when they reside in various tissues of body. ALSO CALLED AS ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS.

* Macrophages not only destroy individual micro organisms but also play a crucial rule in further immune response by “Presenting” parts of that microorganisms to other cells of immune system. For this reason, they are termed as “ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS. 


NATURAL KILLER (NK ) CELLS

Natural killer cells (NK Cells ) are the large lymphocytes, which destroy the

* Virally infected own cells of the body 

* Foreign cells 

* Abnormal cells (cancerous cells) 


MECHANISM OF ACTION (CYTOTOXICITY)

NK cells do not phagocytize the target cells, instead, they bind to their target cells, release some PORE FORMING PROTEINS (PERFORINS), that literally punch large round holes in the membrane of attacked cells & eventually cause lysis of the target cells. This kind of destroying the target cells is called “CYTOTOXICITY”


2. ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
EXAMPLES

* Important antimicrobial proteins are: 

* Lysozyme 

* Compliment proteins 

* Interferon 

LYSOZYMES

Lysozyme, is a mucolytic polysaccharide that causes the LYSIS OF BACTERIA it is present in TEARS, SALIVA, & MUCUS SECRETION.
COMPLEMENT PROTEINS

Complement is a collective terms that describes a system of about 20 PROTEINS, many of which are INACTIVE ENZYME PRECURSORS. The principal actors in this system are 11 Proteins. All these proteins are present among the Plasma Proteins.


ACTIVATION OF COMPLIMENT PROTEINS

These proteins can be activated by two ways.

* CLASSICAL PATH WAY-Act in Adaptive Immunity system. 

* ALTERNATIVE PATH WAY- Act in Innate Immunity System. 


FUNCTIONS

Main functions of compliment proteins are as follows:

1. DIRECT LYSIS OF BACTERIA

2. PROMOTE THE PHAGOCYTOSIS OF BACTERIA

3. NEUTRILIZATION OF VIRUSES

4. CHEMOATTRACTANTS FOR MACROPHAGES.
INTERFERONS (ANTIVIRAL AGENTS)

Interferon are secreted by virally infected cells or some lymphocytes to induce a state of ANTI VIRAL RESISTANCE in unaffected tissues of the body.


3. INFLAMMATION

Inflammation is the body’s reaction to an injury or by entry of micro organisms.


EFFECTS OF INFLAMMATION

A cascade of chemical reactions take place during inflammatory response.

1. When injured, BASOPHILS and MAST CELLS release a substance called HISTAMINE which causes.

* Increased permeability of adjacent capillaries. 

* Local vasodilatation 

* Increased leakage of capillaries. 

2. Due to CHEMOTAXIS, Phagocytes & macrophages are attracted at the injured site. Thus Phagocytes literally eat up microorganisms, dirt, cell debris & etc forming pus.


SYMPTOMS

Redness, heat, swelling, pain in injured tissue.


FEVER -(ALSO CONTRIBUTES TO DEFENSE OF BODY)

In case of warm blooded animals, a no. of micro organisms who escape away from inflammatory response to infect some large part of the body, trigger FEVER. It is usually caused by WBC’S, that release the substance called as PYROGEN.
FUNCTIONS

* High fever is dangerous but moderate fever contributes to the defense of the body. 

* It inhibits the growth of micro-organisms. 

* May speed up the repair of damaged tissues. 

* Facilitates the phagocytosis, increase the production of interferons. 


ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM

DEFINITION

“The specific type of Immunity which does not develop until after the body is first attacked by a bacterial disease or a toxin, is called “Adaptive or Acquired Immunity”. The system which provides this type of immunity is called “ADAPTIVE or ACQUIRED IMMUNE SYSTEM”

OR

“Acquired Immunity is provided by special Immune System that form Antibodies & activated lymphocytes that attack & destroy the specific organisms or toxins. This is the THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE.


DEVELOPMENT OF IMMUNE SYSTEM (LYMPHOCYTES ARE THE BASIS OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM)

Acquired Immune system is actually the product of body’s Lymphocytic system. The responses of adaptive Immune system is provided by Lymphocytes.


TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTES

During fetal development, all lymphocytes come from Bone Marrow. But depending upon their migration & maturity, they can be divided into two populations.

1. “T” - Cells or “T” LYMPHOCYTES

2. “B” - Cells or “B” LYMPHOCYTES.


1. “T” LYMPHOCYTES

DEFINITION

“The lymphocytes that are destined to eventually form ACTIVATED “T” LYMPOCYTES first migrate to & then mature in THYMUS GLAND, that is why, they are called as “T” LYMPHOCYTES”


FUNCTIONS

These are responsible for “CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY


2. “B” LYMPHOCYTES

DEFINITION

“The lymphocytes that are destined to form ANTIBODIES are processed first in the LIVER (before birth) & then in BONE MARROW (after the birth). This population of cells was first discovered in birds where processing occurs in BURSA OF FABRICIUS (not found in mammals), hence they are called as “B” LYMPHOCYTES.”


FUNCTIONS

These are responsible for HUMORAL IMMUNITY


ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM IS INITIATED BY ANTIGENS

In order to develop a specific immune response, the immune system must recognize the invading organisms and / or foreign proteins from its self tissues & proteins.


ANTIGEN

Any foreign substance, that elicit the immune response is called antigen. In general Antigens are proteins or large polysaccharides.


RESPONSE OF IMMUNE SYSTEM TO ANTIGEN

The immune system responds to an antigen by ACTIVATING LYMPHOCYTES & PRODUCING ANTIBODIES (Soluble Proteins). The antibody combines with antigen & helps to eliminate it from the body.


BASIC TYPES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

The adaptive immune system mounts two types of attacks on invading micro-organisms.

1. HUMORAL IMMUNITY

2. CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI)


1. HUMORAL IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

“The immunity which is mediated by circulating antibodies produced by B-lymphocytes is called “ HUMORAL IMMUNITY”.
MAJOR FUCTIONS OF HUMORAL IMMUNITY

Humoral Immunity provides major defence against “BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF B CELLS

“B” CELL RECEPTORS

Each B-cell has specific type of antibodies on its cell surface. This antibody serves as ANTIGENIC RECEPTOR.

ACTIVATION OF SPECIFIC “B” CELLS

On entry of foreign antigen, those B cells specific for that antigen enlarge immediately, becomes activated & form two types of cells:

1. PLASMA CELLS

2. MEMORY CELLS


1. PLASMA CELLS

The activated B-cells proliferate rapidly & transform into enlarged effectors cells called plasma cells.

FUNCTION

Plasma cells secrete ANTIBODIES into the circulation that help to eliminate that particular antigen.

ACTIONS OF ANTIBODIES.

After the formation of antigen-antibody complex antibody can inactivate the invading agent in one of the several ways.

* By activation of complement system that cause the Lysis. 

* Direct Phagocytosis. 

* Neutralization of the toxins released by bacteria. 

* Agglutination of microorganism. 

2. MEMORY CELLS

DEFINITION

Some of the activated B-cells don’t go on to form the plasma cells but instead, form moderate number of new B-cells, which don’t secrete antibodies such cells are called as Memory cells.

FUNCTIONS

The memory cells play important role in future immunity to this specific organism in case of re-infection.


2. CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI)

DEFINITION

The second type of acquired immunity is achieved through the formation of large number of Activated LYMPHOCYTES. This is called cell mediated or T-cell immunity.


FUNCTIONS OF CMI

* CMI is responsible for delayed allergic reactions & rejection of transplantation of foreign tissue. 

* It provides major defence against infections due to VIRUSES, FUNGI, TUBERCLE BACILLI & some parasites. 

* It also provides defence against TUMOUR CELLS. 


MECHANISM OF ACTION OF “T”-CELLS.

T-CELL RECEPTORS (TCRS)

Antigens bind with specific RECEPTOR MOLECULES on the surface of T-Cells, in the same way that they bind the antibodies.

ACTIVATION OF SPECIFIC “T” CELLS.

On exposure to proper antigen, the “T” cells of specific type proliferate & release large no. of activated T-Cells.

SEVERAL TYPES OF “T” CELLS

Different types of T cells are classified into four major groups.

* HELPER “T” CELLS 

* CYTOTOXIC “T” CELLS 

* SUPRESSER “T” CELLS 

* MEMORY “T” CELLS 


1. HELPER “T” CELLS

Helper T cells are the MAJOR REGULATOR of all the immune functions.

RECEPTORS

Helper T cell receptors actually recognize a combination of antigen fragment & one of the body’s own self marker called. “MAJOR HISTO-COMPATIBILITY” (MHC) CLASS II molecules on the surface of macrophages or B cells.

FUNCTIONS

Helper T-cells secrete the LYMPHOKINES which stimulate the production of both CYTOTOXIC & SUPRESSER TOXINS.


2. CYTOTOXIC “T” CELLS (KILLER CELLS)

RECEPTORS

Receptors on the surface of cytotoxic ‘T” cells recognize a combination of antigen fragment & self surface marker molecules called MHC CLASS I , found on every nucleated cells of its own body.

FUNCTIONS

They are especially lethal to virally infected cells. They also destroy the cancer cells, heart transplant cells & other foreign cells.


3. SUPRESSOR “T” CELLS

Along with helper cells, In supressor, T-cells are classified as Regulatory T-Cells

FUNCTIONS

After the conquerence of infection, they seems to shut off the immune response in both B-cells & cytotoxic T-cells.

4. MEMORY “T” CELLS

During CMI response, some T-cells turn into MEMORY CELLS

FUNCTION

Memory cells protect the body in case of reaction in future.


TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE

The immune system has also the ability to memorize the antigen it has encountered. Thus upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen responds in two different ways.

1. Primary Immune Response

2. Secondary Immune Response


1. PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE

DEFINITION

The first exposure to an antigen to the immune system elicits formation of clones of effectors cells to develop specific immunity with in 5 to 10 days. This response of immune system is termed as Primary Immune response.


CHARACTERISTICS

* DELAYED APPEARANCE 

* WEAK POTENCY 

* SHORT LIFE 


2. SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE

DEFINITION

Subsequent exposure of same antigen causes a much more rapid & much more potent antibody response. This is called Secondary Immune response. It develops to it max. with in 3-5 days.


CHARACTERISTICS

* Rapid & quicker appearance 

* Far more potent 

* Longer duration (form antibodies for many months rather than for only a few weeks.) 


BASIS OF SECONDARY RESPONSE (IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY)

The quicker secondary response is made possible due to ability called “Immunological Memory” of the immune system. It is based upon the long lasting memory cells produced with short lived effectors cells of pri immune response. The development of memory cells may provide life long protection against some diseases like chicken pox.


ACTIVE & PASSIVE IMMUNITY
ACTIVE IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

The immunity which is acquired by own immune response is called active immunity
FUNCTION OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY

Active immunity due to development of immunological memory provide LONG TERM PROTECTION, even in some diseases (e.g in chicken Pox ) life long protection is provided.


TYPES OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY

There are two types.

1. Natural active immunity

2. Artificial active Immunity
1. NATURAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

When the active immunity is acquired as a consequence of natural infection then it is called Natural active immunity”
2. ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

Active immunity can be acquired artificially by vaccination. In this case it is said to be “ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY”


PASSIVE IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

Temporary immunity which is achieved in a person without injecting an antigen, by transferring the antibodies, activated T-cells or both obtain from another person or even an animal, is called passive immunity.
FUNCTIONS OF PASSIVE IMMUNITY

Although, acquired passive immunity is short lived (last for 2-3 weeks), it boosts the immune response of the victim several folds.


TYPES OF PASSIVE IMMUNITY

There are 2 Types:

1. Natural passive Immunity

2. Artificial passive Immunity


1. NATURAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

When antibodies are transferred from one person to another of the same species during natural processes, then such immunity is called Natural passive immunity.

EXAMPLE

A pregnant woman passes some of the antibodies to her fetus through placenta. The first breast feeding, the colostrum, of mother pass certain antibodies to her newly born infant.
2. ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY

DEFINITION

PASSIVE IMMUNITY can also be transferred artificially by introducing antibodies derived from animals or human being who are already actively immunized to that disease. This is called artificial passive immunity.

EXAMPLE

RABIES is treated in man by injecting antibodies derided from persons who have been already vaccinated against rabies. This confers the rapid immunity to combat the rapidly progressing rabies in new victim.


IMMUNIZATION

The process of inducing immunity as a preventive measure against certain infectious diseases is called immunization.
ADVANTAGES OF IMMUNIZATION

The incidence of number of diseases (e.g Diptheria, Measles) has declined dramatically since the introduction of effective immunization programmes. Some dread full diseases (e.g. Tuberclosis) is now under control.