2ND YEAR BIOLOGY

 

XII Biology Notes BISE Karachi Chapter 3 - Co-Ordination

Plant Hormones: (Phytohormone)

Definition
Certain chemical produced by plants have profound effect on their subsequent growth and development. Such chemicals are called Plant Hormones or Phytohormone. 
Phytohormone are synthesized by plants in minute concentration and exert their effect by activating gene expression or inhibiting enzyme or changing properties of membrane. 

Types of Phytohormone
There are five kind of plant hormones 
1. Auxins 
2. Gibberellins 
3. Cytokinins 
4. Abscisic Acid 
5. Ethene 

1. Auxins 
Discovery 
the first auxin was discovered by Fret Went in 1926. 
Chemical Nature 
Indol Acetic Acid (I.A.A) 
Indol Acetic Acid (I.B.A) 
Nephthalene Acetic Acid (N.A.A) 
Site of Synthesis 
It is synthesize at the apices of stem and foot, young leaves and young embryo. 

Role of Auxin 
i. Cell division and cell enlargement 
It stimulate teh cell division and cell enlargement and plant in increase the length of plant. 
ii. Initiation of Root 
Auxins also initiates development of adventitious roots when applied at the cut base of stem. 
iii. Abscission 
In mature leaves and fruits when auxin production diminishes, a layer of thin walled cells is formed at the base of petiole and stake of fruit. This layer is called Abscission layer and causes fall of leaves and fruit with slight jerk. 
iv. Growth of Fruit 
Auxins produced in young embryo promotes the growth of fruit. 
v. Parthenocarpy 
Use of auxin helps in producing parthenocarpic or seedless fruits. 
vi. Apical Dominance 
Besides growth promoting function on Auxin, also has inhibitory effect on growth. Growth of apical bud inhibits growth of lateral buds beneath the stem. This phenomenon is termed as apical dominance removal of apical buds initiates growth of lateral buds with more leaves and axillary bud. 
vii. Weedicide 
Auxins are selective weed killer 2-4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (-2-4-D) is used to kill weeds in lawn's and cereal crops. 

2. Gibberellins 
Discovery 
Gibberellins was discovered by T.Yabuta and I.Hayashu in a fungus called Gibberellins funjikuroi. This fungus causes foolish seedling (Bakanae) disease in rice. In this disease the infected rice seedling elongated and ultimately fallover without producing grains. 
Chemical Nature 
The chemical nature of Gibberellins is Gibberellins acid 70 types of gibberellins have been discovered. 

Role of Gibberellins 
i. Cell division and cell enlargement 
Like auxins Gibberellin also promotes cell division and elongation. 
ii. Control of Dwarfism 
Gibberellins can control genetic and physiological dwartism plants. 
iii. Seed Germination 
They promote the synthesis of a-amylase enzyme is dorman seeds due to the production of this enzyme, the seed starts germination. 
iv. Parthenocarpy 
These hormones help in the formation of seedless fruit which are called Parthenocarpic fruits. 
v. Increase of Crop Yield 
The crop yield of sugar can can be increased by the application of gibberellin about 50 tons/ acre. 
vi. Formation of Flower and Growth of Pollen Tube 
They stimulate flowering and the growth of pollen tubes during fertilization 

3. Cytokinins 
Discovery 
Cytokinins are discovered by Miller in coconut milk. 
Chemical Nature 
Chemically there are two types of cytokinins. 
Kinetin It is found in coconut milk etc. 
Zeatin It is found in maize. 

Role of Cytokinins 
i. Cell Division 
They initiate rapid cell division only in the presence of auxin. 
ii. Delay in Senescence 
They also caused delayed senescence (old age). 
iii. Breaking of Seed Dormancy 
They break seed dormancy and promote fruit development some species. 

4. Abscisic Acid (A.B.A) 
In contrast to growth promoting hormones, abscisic acid is growth inhibitor, produced by plants during adverse environment conditions such as drought conditions. 

Role of Abscisic Acid 
It increases dormancy in buds and seeds.

• It causes stomata to close.

• It turn leaf primordia into scale.

5. Ethene 
It is a gas which also acts as a growth inhibitor. 

Role of Ethene 

• It triggers ripening of fruits.

• It contributes in leaf abscission and also breaks the dormancy of seeds and buds.

• It also initiates flowering in plants e.g. pineapple.

Responses to Environmental Stress
Changes in environmental conditions are the big threats for living organisms especially for plants. These factors which change the normal condition of light, CO2, nutrients, temperature etc. causes severe stresses on plants. The common environmental stresses for plants are 
1. Water Shortage (Drought condition) 
2. Less Oxygen Supply 
3. High Concentration of Salt in the Soil 
4. High Temperature 
5. Low / Cold Temperature 
6. Herbivory / Over Grazzing 

1. Water Shortage 
In dry condition, the guard cells of leaf become flaccid to close the stomata.

• In this way the transpiration is stopped.

• The dry condition also stimulates increased synthesis and release of abscisic acid.

• This hormone help in keeping stomata close.

• These plants produce deeper root system.

2. Oxygen Deficiency 
Those plants which grow in wet habitat or marshes, they develop aerial roots to absorb oxygen.

• Some plants developed air tubes that provide oxygen to submerged roots.

3. Salt Stress 
The plants especially halophytes, have salt glands in their leaves where desalination occurs.

4. Heat Stress 
In plants there are two methods to tolerate the heat stress. 

• Transpiration has a cooling effect on the plant body. By this method the effects of heat are reduced.

• Above 40oC plants cell start synthesizing relatively large quantities of special protein called heat shock proteins.

5. Cold Stress 
Plants respond to cold stress by altering the lipid composition, changes in solute composition is altered also by producing different polymers of pentose (Fructose) which allow the crystals to super cool without compound formation.

6. Herbivory / Over Grazzing 
Plants overcome excessive herbivory by developing horns and production of distasteful or toxic compounds.

Defence Against Pathogens

Diseases of plants may arise from infections by viruses, bacteria or fungi and other pathogens in most cases. Against these diseases the plants produce immune system in their body. 

First Line Efence 
The outer layer epidermis is a protective covering around the body of plant. This is the First Line Defence. 
Second Line Defence 
When pathogens enter the body through stomata or any other way, then plants produce certain chemicals to kill them. This is called Second Line Defence. 
Phytoalexins 
In infected plants an antibiotic phytoalexins is produced which is effective to all micro-organisms. 


Biological Clocks 

Definition 
A control system is found in all living organisms which controls physiological and metabolic and metabolic functions according to time is called Biological Clock. 
@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

Biological Rhythms OR Biorhythms

Definition 
In living things the behavior activities occur at regular intervals which are called biological rhythms OR biorhythms. 


Circadian Rhythms

Definition 
[Circa => about; dies => day] 
Biorhythms may occur, showing periodicity of about 24-Hours. These are called Circadian Rhythm, which means about one day, so they are also called diurnal rhythms. 


Causes of Biorhythm

Biorhythms occurs due to the following reasons. 
1. Exogenous Stimuli 
2. Endogenous Stimuli 

1. Exogenous Stimuli 
There may be direct response to various changes in the external (exogenous) stimuli. 
2. Endogenous Stimuli 
These rhythms can be controlled internally by an efficient time measuring system and are independent of light and temperature effects. These types of rhythms are called endogenous. 


Co - Ordination 

Definition 
The working together of all parts of the body or system is called Co-ordination. 

Types of Co-Ordination
There are two types of Co-ordination. 
1. Nervous Co-Ordination 
2. Chemical Co-Ordination 

1. Nervous Co-Ordination 
Definition 
Co-Ordination brought about by the nervous system. It is quickest way of communication take place by electro-chemical messages called Nerve Impulse within the body of all animals is called Nervous Co-Ordination. 

Elements of Nervous System 
The elements o nervous system which help in co-ordination are 
i. Receptor 
ii. Central Nervous System (CNS) 
iii. Effector 

i. Receptor 
The sensory tissues or organs which receive any change in their external as well as internal environment (stimuli) are called Receptors. 
ii. Central Nervous System 
The receptors convey the stimuli to the control centre, the nervous system (Central Nervous System) through sensory nerves. 
iii. Effector 
The central nervous system (CNS) analyses stimuli and sends an appropriate command, through it motor nerves to either endocrine organ to release hormones into the blood or to muscles called Effectors. 

Pathway in Nervous System 
There are two types of pathway in the nervous system. 
i. Afferent Nerve Pathway 
ii. Efferent Nerve Pathway 

i. Afferent Nerve Pathway 
From receptor the messages are carried to the Central Nervous System i.e. brain and spinal cord, this pathway is called Afferent Nerve Pathway. 
ii. Efferent Nerve Pathway 
From central nervous system the messages are transferred to the effector. This pathway is called Efferent Nerve Pathway. 


Nervous Tissues

There are two types of nervous tissues 
1. Neurons 
2. Neuroglia OR Glial Cells 

1. Neurons 
Definition 
The nervous system consist of special cells which can generate and conduct electric current are called Neurons. 
OR 
The chief structural and functional unit of nervous system is called Neurons. 

Structure of Neurons 
Neurons are different from each other according to size and shape but the structure of neuron consists of three parts. 
i. Some or Cell Body 
ii. Dendrites 
iii. Axon 

i. Soma OR Cell Body 
Each neuron has a cell body or soma containing nucleus and various organelle embedded in the cytoplasm. Nissl's granules which are group of ribosomes, associated with rough E.R. and Golgi apparatus are present in the cell body. 
Functions 
The cell body or soma is the main nutritional part of the cell necessary for growth of neuron.

• Soma receive message to dendrites and convey it to axon.

ii. Dendrites 
From the soma, a large number of small threads like terminal branches are arises are called Dendrites. 
Functions 
Dendrites receive stimuli and convey it to the soma.

iii. Axon 
The unbranched, single elongated cytoplasm process which usually arises opposite to dendrites called Axon. 
Axon Hillock 
Axon originates from a pyramid like area of soma called Axon-Hillock. 
Axon Terminal 
At the terminal end of axon many fine branches are present called Axon Terminals. 
Myelin Sheath 
The axon of some neurons is enclosed by a layer of fatty substance known as Myelin Sheath. 
This serve as insulating layer. 
Functions 
Axon is specialized for conducting impulses to other neurons. 

Types of Neurons 
According to the function, neurons are of the three types. 
i. Sensory Neuron 
ii. Motor Neuron 
iii. Inter Neuron 

i. Sensory Neuron 
The neurons which transmit impulses from receptor to the central nervous system is called Sensory Neuron or Receptor Neurons. 

ii. Motor Neuron 
The neurons which transmit instructions of the central Nervous System to the effector are called Motor Neurons or Effector Neurons. 

iii. Inter Neurons 
The neurons present between sensory and motor neurons are called Inter Neurons. They are found in Central Nervous System. 
Functions of Neurons 
Neurons is the functional unit of nervous system which receives stimuli, transfers them to the Central Nervous System (CNS).

• It transfers the messages from CNS to the body parts effector.

Reflex Action 

Definition 
The automatic involuntary responses which occur either due to internal or external stimuli are called Reflex Action. 
OR 
An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control is called a Reflex Action. 


Parts of Reflex Action

Reflex action consists of 
i. Receptor: (Skin) receive stimuli. 
ii. Sensory Neuron: It carries message from receptor to the Central Nervous System (CNS). 
iii. Motor Neuron: It carries message from Central Nervous System (CNS) to the effector. 
iv. Effector: (Muscle of gland) which perform action. 

Reflex Arc 

Definition 
The pathway of passage in impulse during a reflex action is called Reflex Arc. 
Reflexes may be monosynaptic or polysynaptic. 
Monosynaptic 
The reflex action in which only one synapse is involved is called Monosynaptic. 
Example: Knee Jerk 
Polysynaptic 
The reflex action in which many synapses are involve due to presence of inter neurons between sensory and motor neurons is called Polysynaptic. 
Example: Hand withdrawal on the painful stimuli. 

Examples of Reflex Actions 
If our hand touch any hot object, it is quickly withdrawn.

• Secretion of juices from the gland.

• Blinking of eyes.

• Contraction and expansion of lungs.

• If a strong light is flashed across the eye, the eyelids are at once closed or start blinking.

Nerve Impulse 

Definition 
The electrochemical signals developed by a neuron for communication is called Nerve Impulse. 

Method of Development of Nerve Impulse

The neurons develop impulse in the following way. 
1. Resting Membrane Potential (RMP) 
2. Action Potential 
3. Propagation of Impulse 
4. Synapse 


Resting Membrane Potential 

Definition 
A typical neuron at rest is more positive electrically outside than inside the cell membrane. This net difference in charge between the inner and outer surface of a non conducting neuron is -65mv is called the Resting Membrane Potential. 


Factors Involved in Resting Membrane Potential

This popularity is due to the unequal distribution of ions across the neurolemma. The major factors which are involved in resting membrane potential are 

Sodium and Potassium Ions 

• There is a greater concentration of sodium ions outside than inside the membrane.

• Similarly potassium ions are concentrated muscle inside than outside the membrane.

• This is attributed to the activity of ATP driven sodium potassium pump in the neurolemma.

Action Potential 

Definition 
When neuron is stimulated reversal of the polarity of the neurolemma occurs, first changes to +40mv and then restores to -65mv again is called Action Potential. 
This action potential is extremely rapid as it occurs in a few milliseconds. 


Factors Involved in Action Potential

Sodium and Potassium Ions 

• The change in potential across the membrane is due to the presence to sodium and potassium channels in the neurolemma.

Changes Associated with Action Potential 
Sequence of membrane potential changes associated with an Action Potential. 

• Resting Potential

• Sodium gates open and Na+ diffuses into the cell causing a depolarization of the membrane from negative to zero and then proceeds upto +40mv.

• Sodium gates close and potassium gates open.

• K+ diffuses out, causing a repolarization of the membrane.

• Sodium potassium pump restores original ion gradients and resting potential.

Propagation of the Impulse 

Definition 
When the action potential develops and spreads along the entire length of neurolemma, it is called propagation of nerve. 


Synapse 

Definition 
The region where the impulse moves from one neuron to another is called a Synapse. 


Components of Synapse

It consists of three components 
1. Pre Synapting Membrane 
2. Synaptic Cleft 
3. Post Synaptic Membrane 

1. Pre Synaptic Membrane 
The membrane of axon terminal is called Pre Synaptic Membrane. 
2. Synaptic Cleft 
The narrow space between neurons is called Synaptic Cleft. 
3. Post Synaptic Membrane 
The membrane of dendrites of another neuron is called Post Synaptic Membrane. 

Motor End Plate 
When it is the membrane of muscle cell it is called motor end plate. 
Neurotransmitter 
The chemicals present in the vesicles which are released at the axon ending of the neurons, at synapse are called Neurotransmitter. 


Mechanism of Impulse Through Synapse

• When an impulse is reached at axon terminals, the calcium channels are opened.

• From synaptic cleft calcium ions are diffused into the calcium channels.

• Due to this synaptic vesicles fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane, causing the release of neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft.

• The neurotransmitter bind to the receptors on the post-synaptic membrane, which generate action potential in the post-synaptic cell.

• The neurotransmitters are then reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic cells for reuse.

Examples of Neurotransmitter 
Many different types of neurotransmitter are known. These are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, glycine, gab a, serotonin, dopamine etc. 


Evolution of Nervous System 

In different group of animals two types of nervous systems can be recognized, which are 
1. Diffused Nervous System 
2. Centralized Nervous System 

1. Diffused Nervous System 
Diffused Nervous System is found in cnidarians and Echinoderms. 
Nervous System of Hydra 

• In these animals, no anterior and posterior ends is present and their body is radially symmetrical.

• The nerves cells are found in the form of network throughout the body.

• The flow of information is not highly directional and it diffuses in all directions.

• The transmission of impulses is slow because of synapses involved.

• There is no brain but the nerve cells constitute the nervous system.

2. Centralized Nervous System 
Centralized Nervous System found to varying degrees in more complex organisms from platyhelminthes to chordates including humans. 
Nervous System of Planaria 

• In these animals, definite anterior and posterior ends is present and their body is bilaterally symmetrical animals.

• It consists of an anterior brains (a concentration of neurons) which is connected with the Sensory Organs.

• From the brain arise two cord like nerves running longitudinally through the body.

• The two nerve cords are connected with each other at several points through the transverse nerves.

• They co-ordinated the movement of the two lateral sides of the body.

Nervous System of Man

The nervous system of man is the most advanced, highly developed. It controls all functions of the body. It consists of two parts 
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) 
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) 
Definition 
The nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord (hollow nerve cord) and also consists of upto 100 billion inter neurons is called Central Nervous System (CNS). 
Components of Central Nervous System 
The central nervous system consists of 

• Brain

• Spinal Cord

Protection of Central Nervous System 
Brain and spinal cord both are protected in three ways 
i. Cranium 
ii. The Vertebral Column 
iii. Meninges 
iv. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) 

i. Cranium 
Cranium, which is part of skill, protects the brain. 
ii. Vertebral Column 
Neural arches of vertebrate of vertebral column protect the spinal cord. 
iii. Meninges 
Beneath the cranium, the brain and spinal cord are protected by triple layers of tough connective tissues called meninges. 
iv. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) 
Between the layers of meninges, there is a plasma like fluid which bathes the neurons of brain and spinal cord is called Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF). 
It cushions against the bumps and jolts. 

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 
Definition 
The nerves arises from brain and spinal cord that are spread in various part of body which transmits the signals between CNS and body parts make a nervous system called Peripheral Nervous System. 
The peripheral nervous system consists of two types of nerves. 
i. Cranial Nerves 
ii. Spinal Nerves 

i. Cranial Nerves 
In humans, there are 12 pairs of nerves which arise from the brain or lead to the brain these nerves are called cerebral or cranial nerves. 
ii. Spinal Nerves 
In humans, there are 31 pairs of nerves which arise from the spinal cord or lead to the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. 

Types of Peripheral Nervous System 
The peripheral nervous system is divided into two types according to their functions. 
1. Somatic Nervous System 
2. Autonomic Nervous System 

1. Somatic Nervous System 
The peripheral nervous system which controls all the voluntary activities of the body such as contraction of skeletal muscles and movement of joint is called Somatic Nervous System. 
2. Autonomic Nervous System 
The autonomic nervous system which controls involuntary activities of the body such as smooth muscles, glands, muscles of heart and other internal organs is called Autonomic Nervous System. 
Types of Autonomic Nervous System 
Autonomic nervous system divided into two types 
i. Para Sympathetic Nervous System 
ii. Sympathetic Nervous System 

i. Para Sympathetic Nervous System 
The autonomic nervous system formed by some cranial nerves, vagus nerves and the spinal nerves that are arising from the sacral vertabrate are called Para Sympathetic Nervous System. 
ii. Sympathetic Nervous System 
The autonomic nervous system whose nerves arise from the thoracic and lumber regions of spinal nerves is called Sympathetic Nervous System. 
Functions 
This system is important during emergency situation and is associated with "flight or fight". It increases the heart beat, breathing rate, slows digestion, dilates pupil etc. 
Brain 

Definition 
The most important part of Central Nervous System develops from dorsal, hollow nerve cord well protected in the cranium of skull and composed of inter neurons and is the seat of our intelligence, learning and memory is called Brain. 


Part of Brain

The brain consists of three parts 
1. Fore Brain 
2. Mid Brain 
3. Hind Brain 

1. Fore Brain 
Fore brain can be divided into two regions 
i. Telencephalon 
ii. Diencephalon 

i. Telencephalon 
The largest part of fore-brain which is differentiated into two cerebral hemisphere or cerebrum is called Telencephalon. 

Cerebrum 
Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two halves called Cerebral Hemisphes. 
Cerebral Hemisphere 
Each hemisphere consist of an outer grey matter or cerebral cortex and an inner white matter. 
Cerebral Cortex 

• Cerebral cortex is the largest and the most complex part of human brain.

• It is highly convulated to occupy the greater number of inter neurons.

Corpus Callosum 
The two cerebral hemisphere communicate with each other by means of large band of axons called Corpus Callosum. 
Part of Cerebrum 
Functionally, the cerebrum is differentiated into four lobes. 

• Anterior Frontal Lobe

• Lower Central Temporal Lobe Parietal Lobe

• Dorsal Occipital Lobe

Function of Cerebrum 

• Cerebrum is concerned with intelligence memory, learning, resoning and overall control of all voluntary actions.

• It involved in all conscious activities.

• It co-ordinated different senses together.

2. Diencephalon 
The diencephalons consists of two parts 
i. Thalamus 
ii. Limbic System 

i. Thalamus 
The clearing house for sensory impulses is called Thalamus. 
Functions 

• It receives them from different parts of brain and relays them to the appropriate part of the motor cortex.

• It also involves in the perception of pleasure and pain.

ii. Limbic System 
The limbic system is located in an are between the thalamus and cerebrum. 
Parts of Limbic System 
The limbic system consists of 
i. Hypothalamus 
ii. Amygdala 
iii. Hippocampus 

i. Hypothalamus 
Hypothalamus is the part of limbic system which is called Thermostal of the body. 
Functions 

• The hypothalamus is important in regulation of homeostasis.

• It regulates pituitary gland.

• It also regulate body temperature, blood pressure, hunger, thirst, aggression, pleasure and pain.

ii. Amygdala 
The amygdala produces sensation of pleasure, punishment or sexual arousal stimulation. 
It also involve in the feelings of fear. 

iii. Hippoc Ampus 
Hippocampus is involved in long term memory. 


Mid Brain

In mammals mid brain is relatively very small. It consists of the optic lobes which are represented by four small bodies. 

Functions 
It receives sensory information like vision, odour etc. It receives sensory information from spinal cord and sends them to the fore brain. 

Hind Brain
Hind brain consists of 
1. Medulla Oblongata 
2. Cerebellum 
3. Pons 
4. Reticular Formation 

1. Medulla Oblongata 
Medulla oblongata lies on the top of spinal cord. 
Function 

• It controls involuntary actions like blood pressure, heart beat, sneezing, coughing, breathing rate, hicupping, swallowing etc.

2. Cerebellum 
The cerebellum lies dorsally behind the optic lobes. It is highly convoluted. It is large in mammals than other animal. 
Functions 

• The cerebellum plays an important part in controlling muscular co-ordination.

• It specially maintains balance and also position of the body in space.

3. Pons 
Pons regulates activities like muscular co-ordination, facial expressions, breathing and sleeping. 

4. Reticular Formation 
Reticular formation lies in pons, medulla and mid brain. 
Functions 

• It monitors the messages to the brain which should be ignored or should be realized.

Brain Stem
The oldest tissues formed by the combination of medulla oblongata, pons and mid brain is called as Brain Stem. 
Functions 

• It involved in the control of sleep and wakening.

Spiral Cord
Definition 
A thick whitish nerve cord that lies below the medulla oblongata and extends down through the neural canal of vertebrate upto the hips is called Spinal Cord. 

Cross Section of Spinal Cord
In cross section, the spinal cord is differentiated into two areas. 

• White Matter

• Gray Matter

Unlike brain, spinal cord has grey matter inside surrounded by white matter on the outside. They grey matter has the shape of an "H". The first synapse of each sensory neuron is located in the grey matter. 

Central Canal 
The narrow central containing cerebrospinal fluid runs through the middle of the spinal cord. This fluid brings nutrients to the spinal cord. 

Spinal Nerves
The nerve arises from spinal cord is called Spinal Nerves. 

• Each spinal nerve divides into two roots just before it joins spinal cord.

1. Dorsal Root 
2. Ventral Root 

1. Dorsal Root 
The dorsal root joints the dorsal part of the spinal cord and it contains axons of sensory neurons. 
Dorsal Root Ganglion 
The cell bodies of these neurons aggregate in a small swelling known as the dorsal root ganglion. 

2. Ventral Root 
The ventral root which is attached to the ventral part of the spinal cord carrying axons of motors neurons, arised from the spinal cord. 
Functions of Spinal Cord 

• Spinal cord serves as an express way for signals between autonomic nervous system.

• It is also the control centre for many reflexes.

@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

Receptors 
Definition 
The single or group of either modified neurons or epithelial cells which receive stimuli either from external environments and relaying them in the form of impulses to the CNS are called Receptors. 

Receptionists 
The receptors are acts as receptionist of nervous system because they receive any kind of change, which is then transferred to the brain and spinal cord. 

Sensation 
Receptor converts stimuli into nerve impulses, this stage awareness of stimulus is called Sensation. 

Perception 
In the control centre of the nervous system, the impulses are converted into perception. 


Types of Receptors

Receptors are classified according to type of stimulus which they can detect and give response. Following are some types of receptor. 

1. Thermoreceptor 
The receptors which detect and respond to temperature fluctuations (heat and cold) are called Thermoreceptor. 
2. Chemoreceptor 
The receptors which can detect and respond to presence of certain chemicals in their surrounding are called Chemoreceptor. 
3. Mechanoreceptor 
The receptors which can detect the stimuli of sound, motion, touch, pressure gravity and movement are called Mechanoreceptor. 
4. Photoreceptor 
The receptors which respond to the stimulus of light and ultraviolet rays are called Photoreceptor. 
5. Pain Receptor 
The receptors which produced sensation of pain or damage tissues are called the Pain Receptor. 


Working of Sensory Receptors in Skin

In human, the receptors in skin are concerned with at least five different senses i.e., touch, pressure, cold, warm and pain. 

Types of Sensory Receptor in Skin 
There are two types of sensory receptors in the skin. 
i. Free Nerve Ending Receptors 
ii. Encapsulated Receptors 

i. Free Nerve Ending Receptors 
The simplest types of receptor which contain free end without any protective capsule and are located just beneath the epidermis are called Free Nerve Ending Receptors. 
Functions 
Free nerve ending receptors adapt very slowly to stimulation. 
Types 
They are of different types 

a. Mechanoreceptors Receive touch and pressure. 
b. Nociceptors Feel pain 
c. Thermoreceptors Feel change in temperature 

ii. Encapsulated Receptors 
The type of receptor contain a protective capsule of connective tissues at their ends and lie in skin are called Encapsulated Receptors. 
Types 
Encapsulated receptor are of following two types 
i. Meissner's Corpuscles 
ii. Pacinian Corpuscles 

i. Meissner's Corpuscles 
The encapsulated receptors that are found in those parts which do not have hairs such as finger tips, eyelids, lips palms, soles, nipples etc are called Meissner's Corpuscles. 
Structure of Capsule 
Their capsules consists of thick collagen fibers with spiral and highly coiled nerve endings. 
Function 
There are touch receptors means very sensitive to touch. 

ii. Pacinian Corpuscles 
The encapsulated receptors which are found in dermis layer and also in some internal organs and moveable joints are called Pacinian Corpuscles. 
Structure 
Their nerve endings are surrounded by an onion like capsule made of concentric layers of membrane. Between the membranes fluid filled spaces are present. 
Functions 
They are pressure receptor and detect rapid and deep pressure changes produced by vibration and touch. 

Sensory Receptors with Reference to Arteries 
The aortic arch and the carotid artery contain many receptor which are 
Mechanoreceptor 
They detect the pressure changes in arteries. 
Baroreceptor 
They detect the pulse pressure 

Function 
These receptors transfer these changes to the medulla oblongata which controls blood pressure. 

Aortic Body and Carotid Body 
The aortic arch and the carotid sinus also contain chemoreceptor called Aortic body and carotid body. 
Function 
They are sensitive to CO2 concentration and hydrogen ion concentration of the blood.

Effects of Drugs on Co-Ordination 
Drugs
A chemical substance that causes the specific physiological response in the body are called drugs. 
Importance 

• Many drugs are useful medically to treat emotional stress or certain illness.

• Drugs which people take to alter the mood or emotional state affect body functional interfering with the working of neurotransmitters.

• Therefore their abuse often causes harmful effects.

Nicotine

It is a drug found in tobacco.

• It acts as a stimulant and is widely used as a neurological agent.

• Nicotine affects post synaptic membrane in CNS and PNS.

• It minimize the action of acetylcholine on nicotine receptors. So it is stimulant to nerve impulse.

• It increase the heart beat, rate, blood pressure and digestive tract mobility.

• Nicotine may induce vomiting and diarrhea.

• It may cause water retention relation by kidneys.

• It stimulate the nervous system thereby reducing fatigue, increasing, alertness and improving the concentration.

Nervous Disorders
The abnormalities appear in brain, spinal cord, central nervous system and peripheral nervous system causes diseases called Nervous Disorders. 
Some common disorders of nervous system are as follows 
1. Parkinson's Disease 
2. Alzheimer's Disease 
3. Epilepsy 

1. Parkinson's Disease 
It is a brain disorder. 
Causes 
It either caused by degeneration or damage of nerve tissues within the basal ganglia of the brain. 
Symptoms 
It is characterized by involuntary tremors, diminishing motor power and rigidity. It causes stiffness, weakness and trembling of the muscles. The mental faculties are not affected. 
Treatment 
Leopoda is the effective medicine which is helpful in minimizing the symptoms by can not halt the degeneration of neurons of brain. 

2. Alzheimer's Disease 
It is the progressive degeneration of neurons of brain, especially cortex and hippocampus. 
Causes 
There is a genetic pre-disposition to the disease in some people, so it tends to run in families. 
Stages of Diseases 
The disease progresses in three broad stages. 
First Stage 
At first, the patient notices his forgetfulness. 
Second Stage 
In second phase, there is a severe loss of memory particularly for recent events. Anxiety increases with sudden changes in mood. 
Third Stage 
In the third and last stage the disease become severe. He losses memory, hears voices or see faces in the absence of any person. This disease is called Hallucination. He does not share his ideas and does not accept ideas of other persons, such disease is called paranoid delusions. 
Symptoms 
The main symptom of the disease is the loss of memory called dementia. 
Treatment 

• Effective medicines should be used.

• Psychological treatment is better to control the disease.

• Personal care of patient is necessary otherwise he may get any harm.

Chemical Co-Ordination
Definition 
The co-ordination brought about by the endocrine gland system. It is not very rapid, but shows slow and prolonged effect takes place by chemical substances called hormones and neurotransmitter within the body of all animals is called Chemical Co-ordination. 
Endocrine glands secreat their secretions (hormones) directly into the blood stream. They are transported by the blood to the target cells. 

Types of Hormones
Chemically the hormones are organic compounds which are classified into three types. 
1. Peptide Hormones 
2. Modified Amino Acids Hormones 
3. Steroid Hormones 

1. Peptide Hormones 
The hormones which are composed of protein are called Peptide Hormone. There are two types of peptide hormones. 
i. Small Chain Amino Acids 
ii. Large Chain Amino Acids 

i. Small Chain Amino Acids 
The peptide hormones consists of small chain of amino acids are called Small Chain Amino Acids. 
Examples 

• Glucagon

• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

• Oxytocin

ii. Large Chain Amino Acids 
The peptide hormones consists of long chain of amino acids are called Large Chain Amino Acids. 
Example 

• Insulin

• Preleclin

2. Modified Amino Acid Hormones 
The hormones consists of modified amino acids are called Modified Amino Acid Hormones. 
Example 

• Thyroxine

• Epinephrine

• Nor-epinephrine

3. Steroid Hormones 
The hormones which are composed of lipid are called Steroid Hormones. 
Example 

• Estrogen

• Progesterone

• Testosterone

• Aldisterone

Hormone Action
To explain the action of hormones two models have been proposed. 
1. First Model 
2. Second Model 

Similarity Between Both Models 
Both model agree that the plasm membrane of cells contain certain receptors to accept the hormones. 
Dissimilarity Between Both Models 
After receiving the hormones continue their way of action called signal transduction pathway. It is different in both models. 

1. First Model 
According to the first model peptide hormones are involved. The receptor molecule is attached to an enzyme adenylate cyclase in the inner part of plasma membrane. The hormone is attached to the receptor. By the activity of enzyme ATP molecule is changed into cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) in the cytoplasm. The cyclic (AMP) acts as a second messenger and activates the particular enzyme which actually helps in the function. Some other messenger molecules also take part in the process. 

2. Second Model 
According to the second model, steroid hormones are involved. These hormones are fat soluble, so they enter the cell directly through the plasma membrane, so they do not need second messenger. In the cytoplasm they are attached to the particular receptors which transfer into the nucleus. In the nucleus. In the nucleus hormone receptor complex activities the genes due to which actual function is started. 

Functions of Hormones

• They do not initiate new biochemical reactions but produce their effects by regulating the enzymatic and other chemical reactions, already present.

• They may either stimulate or inhibit a function.

• Hormones may also control some long term changes, such as rate of growth, rate of activity and sexual maturity.

Endocrine System 
Definition 
Endo => Inside => Krinein => separate i.e. to secrete. 
In the body of vertebrates there are certain dustless gland which poured their secretions (hormones) directly into the blood or in body fluids are called endocrine glands or ductless glands constitute a system called Endocrine System. 

Endocrine Glands of Man
In the body of man and other mammals, following important endocrine glands are mostly found. 
1. Hypothalamus 
2. Pituitary Gland 
3. Thyroid Gland 
4. Parathyroid Gland 
5. Pancreas 
6. Adrenal Gland 
7. Thymus Gland 
8. Pineal Gland 
9. Gonads 

1. Hypothalamus 
The part of forebrain which forms a connection between Nervous System and endocrine system is called Hypothalamus. 
Hormones 
The hypothalamus contains specialized nerve cells called neurosecretory cells which produced two types of hormones. 
i. Releasing Hormone 
ii. Inhibitory Hormone 

i. Releasing Hormones 
The hormones which are produced to increase the secretion of another glands are called Releasing Hormones. 
Function 
Releasing hormone control the secretion of hormones from pituitary gland. 

ii. Inhibitory Hormones 
The hormones which are produced to prevent the extra secretion of hormones are called Inhibitory Hormones. 
Function 
Hypothalamus produced two hormones which are 

• Oxytocin

• Antidiuretic Hormones (ADH)

These two hormones are stored in the posterior lobe of pituitary gland. 

2. Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) 
Pituitary gland is called "master gland" because it controls the secretion of other endocrine glands. 
Location 
The pituitary gland is located in the brain. It is attached to the base of hypothalamus by short. 
Size 
The pituitary gland is small pea size gland. 
Lobes of Pituitary Gland 
Pituitary gland has three lobes 
i. Anterior Lobe 
ii. Median Lobe 
iii. Posterior Lobe 

i. Anterior Lobe 
Anterior lobe produces three types of hormones which are 
a. Tropic Hormone 
b. Growth Hormone or STH 
c. Prolactin 

a. Tropic Hormone 
The hormones which control the activity of other hormones are called Tropic Hormones. 
Kinds of Tropic Hormone 
The tropic hormone secreted by the pituitary gland are as follows 
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) 
It control the working of thyroid gland including secretion of thyroxin. 
Adreno-Cortico Tropic Hormone (ACTH) 
In controls the activity of outer part of cortex of adrenal gland. 
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) 
FSH in females stimulate follicle developing and secretion of oestrogens from the ovaries. 
In males it stimulates development of the germinal epithelium of the testis and sperm production. 
Leutinizing Hormone (LH) 
This hormone helps in the formation of sperms and testosterone hormone in male. In female it takes part in ovulation i.e. release of ovum from the ovary. 

b. Growth Hormone OR Somatotropin Hormone (STH) 
It regulates the normal growth by controlling many metabolic processes, such as protein synthesis, involved in growth of bones and soft tissue. 

c. Prolactin Hormone 
This hormone stimulate mammary glands and production of milk. 

ii. Median Lobe 
Median lobe produced one hormone called Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH). 
Functions 
This hormone controls darkening of skin in many vertebrates. In human, very small amount of MSH is produced by the anterior pituitary rather than median. 

iii. Posterior Lobe 
From posterior lobe of pituitary gland following hormones are secreted. 
a. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) 
b. Oxytocin 

a. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) 
It stimulates the re-absorption of water by tubules of kidney and thus decreases the amount of urine passed. 
b. Oxytocin It stimulates contraction of muscles of uterus during child birth and release of milk during breast feeding. 

Abnormal Conditions Due to Pituitary Gland 
Due to abnormal production of somato tropic hormone (STH) or growth hormone, following abnormalities occur. 
i. Gigantism 
ii. Dwarfism 
iii. Acromegaly 

i. Gigantism 
It is disease of childhood. 
Causes 
It occurs due to over secretion of somatotropic hormones (STH) or growth hormone. 
Symptoms 
The affected individuals becomes abnormally tall. 

ii. Dwarfism 
It is a disease of childhood. 
Causes 
It caused due to less secretion of somato tropic hormone or growth hormone. 
Symptoms 
The affected individuals becomes abnormally short. 

iii. Acromegaly 
It is a disease of adulthood. 
Causes 
It occurs due to overproduction to somatotropic homrone (STH). 
Symptoms 
In this condition, hands, feet and jaw bones and cartilages and soft muscles become larger in size and swollen. 

3. Thyroid Gland 
Location 
Thyroid gland is located in the neck region in front of trachea. It consists of two lobes, one on either side of trachea. 
Shape 
It is butterfly in shape. 
Secretions 
It secreats three main main hormones. 
i. Thyroxine or T4 (Tetra lodo Thyroxine) 
ii. T3 (Tri lodo Thyroxine) 
iii. Calcitonin 

i. Thyroxine OR T4 

• Thyroxin increases the metabolic rate and promotes both physical growth and mental development.

• It increases the oxygen consumption and production of heat.

ii. T3 Hormone 

• Tri lodo thyroxine performs the same function as that of thyroxine or Tetra lodo Thyroxine.

iii. Calcitonin 

• Calcitonin plays and important role in calcium homeostasis.

• Calcitonin is produced when calcium Ca++ level is increased in blood.

• It respond to decreased the blood calcium level by stimulating the deposition of excess calcium in bones.

Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland 
There are two conditions of abnormalities of Thyroid Gland. 
i. Hyperthyroidism 
ii. Hypothyroidism 
i. Hyperthyroidism 
The state of over secretion of hormones by thyroid gland is called Hyperthyroidism. 
Due to hyperthyroidism following symptoms usually appear. 

• High blood pressure

• Increase body temperature

• Intolerance to heat

• Profuse sweating

• Loss in weight etc

ii. Hypothyroidism 
The state of deficiency of T4 and T3 hormones is called Hypothyroidism. 
It causes following diseases 
i. Myxedema 
ii. Goiter 
iii. Cretinism 

i. Myxedema 
It occurs in adult stage. 
Causes 
It occurs due to the deficiency of T3 and T4 Hormones 
Symptoms 
Myxedema produces following symptoms 

• Overweight (Obesity)

• Loss of hairs

• Dry Skin

• Mental activity or body movement become slower

• Intolerance to cold

ii. Goiter 
Causes 
It occurs due to deficiency of iodine in diet which results in decreased level of thyroxin hormones (T3 and T4). 
Symptoms 

• Thyroid gland works more than normal to produce more thyroxine. As a result of which they become swollen and enlarged.

iii. Cretinism 
It is disease of childhood. 
Causes 
It occurs due to deficiency of thyroxin hormone in early age, such persons are called cretinism and the mechanism is known as cretinism. 
Symptoms 
This disease shows following symptoms 

• Mental retardation

• Stunted growth

• Physical weakness

• Abnormal facial features

4. Parathyroid Gland (PTG) 
Location 
Parathyroid glands are present in the neck regiort with two parts of thyroid gland. 
Size 
Their size is like pea seeds. 
Secretion 
Parathyroid gland secrete only one hormone called Parathyroid Hormone (PTM). 
Function 

• Parathyroid hormone plays an important role in calcium's homeostasis.

• Parathyroid hormone is produced when calcium Ca++ level is decreased in blood.

• It response to increased the calcium ion in blood in two ways.

• It increase the absorption of calcium ions in kidney.

• It induces the bone cells (Osteoblasts) to released calcium from bones into the blood. This process is called Demineralization.

Abnormalities of Parathyroid Gland 
Abnormalities in parathyroid gland usually produces two diseases. 
i. Tetany 
ii. Rickets 
i. Tetany 
Deficiency causes a drop in blood Ca++ which in turn leads to muscular tetancy. 
ii. Rickets 
Over production would lead to a progressive demineralization of the bones similar to tickets, as well as to the formation of massive kidney stones. 

5. Pancreas 
Pancreas is a gland which acts as both exocrine and endocrine gland. 
Location 
Pancreas is located in abdominal cavity below the liver. 
Islets of Langerhans 
The cells of pancreas are called Islets of langerhans. 

• They perform the function of endocrine gland.

• This is under control of the pituitary trophic hormones STH and ACTH and responds directly to the level of blood glucose which is normally 90ms/100mg.

• The islets of langerhans are of two distinct types.

i. Alpha Cells 
ii. Beta Cells 
i. Alpha Cells (α-cells) 
Alpha cells secreat hormone called Glucagon. 
ii. Beta Cells (β-cells) 
Beta cells secreat hormone called Insulin. 

Glucagon 

• It is secreted in response to decrease sugar level in blood.

• It increase the blood glucose level mainly by promoting breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscles.

• It also increase the rate of breakdown of fats.

Insulin 

• It is secreted in response to increase sugar level in blood.

• It decrease the blood glucose level mainly by following mechanism:

i. It increases glycogen synthesis in liver and also increasing cell utilization of glucose. 
ii. It also stimulates both lipid and protein synthesis which reduces glucose level. 
iii. Insulin inhibits the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and muscles. 

Disorders of Insulin Deficiency 
Due to deficiency of insulin, a diseased appeared called Diabetes mellitus. 
Diabetes Mellitus 
When there is deficiency of insulin, the amount of sugar is increased in blood, it is called Diabetes Mellitus. 
Symptoms 

• High level of blood sugar

• Sugar in the urine

• Disturbance of the body's osmotic equilibrium

• Dehydration

• Derangement of the nervous system

Types of Diabetes Mellitus 
There are two types of Diabetes Mellitus. 
i. Insulin Dependent Diabetes 
ii. Insulin Independent Diabetes 
@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

6. Adrenal Gland 
Location 
A pair of adrenal gland is present, one on the top of each kidney. 
Structure 
Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts 
1. Adrenal Cortex 
2. Adrenal Medulla 

1. Adrenal Cortex 
The outer layer of adrenal gland is called Adrenal Cortex. It is controlled by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreted from Pituitary Gland. 
Secretions 
Adrenal cortex produces many hormones which are collectively called as Corticosteriods. 
Functions 

• These hormones are very important for regulating carbohydrates metabolism.

• They are also essential for maintaining mineral balance in the body.

• The important corticosteroid hormones are as follows.

1. Cortisol 
2. Aldosterone 
3. Androgen 

1. Cortisol 

• This hormone is produced at the time of fever and diseases.

• It converts protein of muscles into amino acids, which are changed into glucose by the activity of liver.

• In this way there is continue supply of energy in the body.

• It reduces pain and inflammation in the body.

Over Secretion of Cortisol 
Over secretion of cortisol causes a disease called Cushing's Syndrome. 
Cushing's Syndrome 
Symptoms 

• Obesity

• Breakdown of Muscles

• Diabetes

Deficiency of Cortisol 
Deficiency of cortisol causes a diseases called Addison's Disease. 
Addison's Disease 
Causes 
It is due to defect in auto immune system. 
Symptoms 

• Loss in weight

• Weakness

• Low level o sugar

• Low blood pressure

Aldosterone 

• This hormone helps in the reabsorption of Na++ and Cl- ions by the help of kidney.

• It raises the blood pressure and blood volume.

Androgen 

• It causes development of the secondary male characteristics, such as hairs on face, depending of voice and increase in muscle size. It is like a testosterone.

• When their amount in female in increased, hairs are produced on the face of female.

2. Adrenal Cortex 
The inner layer of adrenal gland is called Adrenal Medulla. 

• Adrenal medulla works under the influence of sympathetic nervous system.

Secretions 
Adrenal Medulla produces many hormones which are collectively called as Emergency Hormones. Both are secreted in stress situation. 
The important emergency hormones are 
i. Adrenaline OR Epinephrine 
ii. Nor-Adrenaline OR Nor-Epinephrine 

i. Adrenaline OR Epinephrin 

• It increase heart rate, amount of glucose in blood, rapid respiration and metabolism during emotions and emergency.

• It also takes part in the contraction of blood vessels in intestine and dilation of blood vessels in muscles.

ii. Non-Adrenaline Or Nor-Epinephrine 

• It also functions like epinephrine, but its main function is control of blood pressure during fight and flight.

• The over secretion of both these hormones causes high blood pressure.

7. Thymus Gland 
Location 
It is present in the upper region of thorax, behind the breast bone. It consists of two parts which are attached together in the front region of trachea. 
Structure 
It secret hormone called Thymosine. 
Function 
Thymosine controls the production of Thymphocytes and also their differentiation. These are the cells of immune system and control the infection of virus bacteria. 

8. Pineal Gland 
Location 
Pineal gland is a tiny gland present at the upper side of diencephalons in the brain. 
Secretion 
Pineal gland secretes a hormone called Melatonin. 
Functions 

• Metatonin regulates the seasonal reproductive cycles.

• It also regulates the growth and development of gonad in many mammals.

• It controls the sensation of light and darkness of eyes.

• It produced a/c to the time of day, night or weather.

8. Gonads 
The testes and ovaries also functions as endocrine glands and produce sex hormone chemically sex hormones are steroids. Secretion of gonadial hormones is controlled by gonadotropic hormones pituitary gland. 

i. Testes 
Testes are the male reproductive organs. 
Secretion 
Testes produced male sex hormone called Testosterone. 
Functions 

• Tests is responsible of sexual maturity and development of secondary sexual characts such as appearance of beard and moustache in males.

• It also stimulates the growth of bones and muscles.

ii. Ovaries 
Ovaries are female reproductive organs but they acts as endocrine glands. 
Secretion 
Ovaries secrete two hormones called as 
i. Oestrogen 
ii. Progesterone 

i. Oestrogen 
Oestrogen causes development of female secondary sexual characters. 
It also helps in thickening of the wall of uterus and prepare it for implantation of fertilized ovum. 
ii. Progesterone 
It is concerned with maintenance of pregnancy by preventing the contraction of walls of uterus

Support and Movement
Irritability
The ability of an living organism to produce response against any stimula are called Irritability it is also called Sensitivity.

Movement
Living organism shown the responses towards stimuli are called Movement.

Support in Plant
Plants require proper strength and support it is necessary to maintain their shape, increase in size and keep them straight and strong. The support maintains balance. In plant body support is provided by two ways.
* Turgidity in soft parts of plants 
* Mechanical tissues 

Support Through Turgor Pressure
The living cell of epidemics, cortex and pith take in water by osmosis. Thus an Internal hydrostatic pressure called "Turgor Pressure", which keeps them rigid and resistant to bending. If they loose turgidity stem wilts. The turgor pressure is extremely important to maintain the turgidity in plants.

Support Through Supporting Tissue
In plants there are certain tissue called Mechanical tissues. These tissue provide strength to the plant body.

1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma

1. Parenchyma
Structure
* Parenchyma is a simple tissue. It is composed of thin walled spherical, oval or elongated cells. 
* They are with or without Intercellular spaces. 
* They are living cell. 

Location
They are found in cortex, pith and epidemics, mesophyll region of leaves.

Functions
Their function is synthesis of food and storage of food. They may serve as a supporting tissue in soft plant due to internal turgor pressure.

2. Collenchyma
Structure

* Collencym is a simple permanent tissue. It is composed of rounded, oval or polygonal cells. 
* They are living cells with protoplasm. 

* Intra cellular spaces are absent and these cells thickened at the corners due to deposition of cellulose and protopectin. 

Location
These tissues are found in the dicot stem below the epidermis.

Functions
Collenchyma cell provide support to young herbaceous part of the plant. It elongate with the grow stem and leaves.

3. Sclerenchyma

Structure
* Sclerenchyma is a simple permanent tissue. It is composed of long, narrow thick walled cell. 
* They have no intracellular spaces. 
* They are dead cell without protoplasm. 
* A thick materials is deposit along the wall of cell called pectin and lignin. 

Location
Sclerenchyma tissues are found in xylem which are vascular tissue.
Functions
They provide strength and Mechanical support to the plant parts.

Types of Sclerenchyma
There are two type of sclerenchyma

1. Fibers
2. Sclerides

1. Fibers
The sclerenchyma elongated cell with tapered ends. They are tough and strong but flexible Fibers.
2. Sclerides
The variable often irregular in shape sclerenchyma are called sclereids. Simple unbranched sclerids are generally called stone cell.

Secondary Growth
An increase in plant girth due to the activity of cambium ring is called secondary growth.


Secondary Tissue
Tissues which are formed by the activity of cambium ring are called secondary tissue.

Significance of Secondary Tissue
Cambium Ring
The ring of activity dividing cells responsible for lateral growth in plant are called cambium ring.
Secondary growth occurs due to cell division in cambium ring. There are two type
i. Vascular Cambium Ring
The cambium present between xylem and phloem is called Vascular Cambium Ring. The cell within the vascular bundles are called fusiform initials.
Vascular cambium gives rise to two new tissues.
* Secondary Xylem (Toward the inside) 
* Secondary Phloem (Toward the outside) 

Growth Rings
The secondary Xylem causes most of the increase in stem thickness. Over the year a woody stem get thicker and thicker as it vascular cambium produce layer upon payer of secondary Xylem. These layers are visible as rings.

Sap Wood and Heart Wood
The outer region of secondary wood is of lighter color and take part in the conduction of water from root to leaf are called Sap Wood.
The inner region of secondary wood is dark brown in color and do not take part in the conduction of water are called Heart Wood.
In most plant heart wood accumulate a variety of chemical such as resins, oil, gum and tannins. Which provide a resistant to decay and insect attack.

ii. Cork Cambium Ring
The cambium ring present in cortex region and increase the diameter of stem are called cork cambium ring.

Cork cambium cell divide and form new cells on both side.
* Cork / Phellem ------> Outerside 
* Secondary Cortex ------> Inner Side 

Cork / Phellum
Cork is formed on the outer side by the cork cambium. Which is an insulating layer prevent transpiration. Cork cell are dead and thick wall.

Secondary Cortex
It is formed on the inner side by cork cambium. It is consist of few layers of parenchymatous cells. They contain chloroplast.

Bark
Epidemics, lenticels and cork collectively called bark which is the outer part of stem.

Callus
Another important function of the cambium is to form callus or wood tissue on over the wound. The tissue are rapidly formed below the damage surface of stem and root.

Movement in Plant
Definition
Any action taken by living organs to reduce its irritability produce by stimuli are called Movement.

Type of Movement
There are two type of movement in plant.
1. Autonomic Movement
2. Paratonic Movement

1. Autonomic Movement
Movement which occurs due to internal stimuli factor inherent inside the plant body itself are called Autonomic or spontaneous movement.

Types of Autonomic Movement
There are three type of autonomic movement.
i. Locomotory Movement
ii. Growth Curvature Movement
iii. Turgor Movement

i. Locomotory Movement
Movement of whole plant body or an organ or material within plant cell from one place to another due to internal stimuli is called movement of locomotion.

Example
* The streaming movement of cytoplasm (Cyclosis). 
* Movement of chromosome during cell division. 

ii. Growth Curvature Movement
Change in the form and shape of plants or plant organs due to the differences in the ratio of growth of different parts are called growth and curvature movement.

Types of Growth Curvature
There are two type of growth movement.
* Nutation 
* Nastic 

Nutation
The growth tip of young stem moves in zigzag manner due to alternate changes in growth on opposite side of the apex. This type of growth is called nutation.

Example
Movement of climber around any rope as found in railway crupper.

Nastic
When the process of growth occurs in different manner in the parts of a plant and slow in other part it is called Nastic Movement.
There are two type of Nastic movement
* Epinastic 
* Hyponastic 

Epinastic
When faster growth occurs on the upper side of the organ is known as epinastic.
Hyponastic
When faster growth occurs on the lower side of the organ is known as hyponastic.

iii. Turgo Movement

Movement occur due to change in the turgidity and size of cells as a result of loose or gain of water called Turgo Movement.

Example
* Movement of leaves of touch me not. 

2. Paratonic Movement
The movement occurs due to external stimuli are called paratonic or Induce Movement.

Type of Paratonic Movement
There are two type of paratonic movement.

i. Nastic Movement

ii. Tropic Movement


i. Nastic Movement
The non directional movement of parts of plant in response to external stimuli are called Nastic Movement.
Usually this movement occur in leaves or petals of flower.

Type of Nastic Movement
There are two of nastic
i. Photonastic
ii. Haptonastic

i. Photonastic
The nastic movement occurs due to light are called photonastic.
Example
The flower open and close due to light intensity.

ii. Haptonastic
The nastic movement occurs due to the touch of any living organism are called Haptonastic.

ii. Tropic Movement
Tropic ------> Tropos mean "to turn"
The movement in response of growth of whole organ toward and away from stimuli are called tropic movement. It is also known as directional movement.

Type of Nastic Movement
The main type of tropic movement are as follow
* Phototropism 
* Geotropism 
* Chemotropism 
* Hydrotropism 
* Thigmotropism 

Phototropism
Photo ------> Light Tropos ------> turn

The movement of part of plant in response to stimulus of light are called phototropism.

Example
* Positive phototropism in stem 
* Negative phototropism in root 

Geotropism
Geo ------> earth Tropos ------ turn
The movement of part of plant in response to force of gravity are called Geotropism.

Example
Root display positive Geotropism and shoots negative geotropism.

Chemotropism
Chemo ------> Chemical Tropos ------> turn

The movement in response to some chemicals is called Chemotropism.
Example
The hyphase of fungi show chemotropism.

Hydrotropism
Hydro ------> Water Tropism ------> turn
The movement of plant parts in response to stimulus of water is called hydrotropism.

Example
The growth of root toward water is due to positive hydrotropism and shoots negative hydrotropism.

Thigmotropism
Thigmos ------> touch Tropos ------> turn
he movement of plant parts in response to stimulus of touch are called Thigmotropism.

Example
The movement in climber

Skeleton
Definition
The tough hard and rigid framework of the body which gives particular shape and support to animal body are called Skeleton.


Human Skeleton

Endoskeleton present inside the human body. It consist of 206 bones. In man endoskeleton divide into two parts.
1. Axial Skeleton
2. Appendicular

1. Axial Skeleton
The skeleton composed of skull, sternum, ribs and vertebral column are called Axial Skeleton.

i. Skull
The skull is made up of cranium and facial bones.
(Cranium)
The part of the skull consist of eight bones and form a box like structure which protect the brain are called Cranium.
(Facial Bones)
The other bones of skull form face are called facial bones. There are 14 facial bones such as check bones, upper jaws and lower jaws single bone called dentary.

ii. Ribs Cage
Ribs are semicircular bones attached on their dorsal side with the vertebrae and on their ventral side with sternum.
Rib Cage is composed of 12 pairs of ribs. The lower two pairs of ribs are called floating ribs because they do not attached with the sternum.
(Function)
The rib cage enclosed the chest cavity and protects heart and lungs.

iii. Sternum
The narrow rod shaped bones present in ventral wall of thorax are called sternum. It is also known as breast bone.

iv. Vertebral Column
A hollow spine in which spinal cord protected extend from skull to pelvis are called V column.
(Bones of Vertebral Column)
The vertebral column consists of 33 bones called vertebrate but due to fusion 26 bones are formed.

2. Appendicular
The skeleton system consist of pectoral girdle and hind limbs and easy to move are called Appendicular skeleton.
Pectoral Girdle and Fore Limb
(Pectoral Girdle)
The girdle present in shoulder region and attach the arm to the trunk are called Pectoral Girdle.
(Parts of Pectoral Girdle)
Pectoral girdle consist of two parts.
1. Scapula ------> board part
2. Clavicle ------> Collar bone which connects scapula with sternum.

For Limb consist of
* Humerus (1) 
* Radius (1) 
* Ulna (1) 
* Carpals (8) 
* Meta Carpals (5) 
* Phalanges (14) 

Arrangement of Bones in Fore Limb
Arm: Humerus forms ball and socker joint with scapular while at distal end humerus forms hinge joint with radius and ulna.
Wrist: The radius and ulna at their distal end from multistage with eight wrist bones called Carpals.
Hand: Five metacarpals from the frame work of palm of the hand.
Digits: Five rows of the phalonges in fingers are attached to the meta carpals. They support the finger.

Pelvic Girdle and Hind Limb
Pelvic Girdle
The girdle present in lower region (hip region) and attached the hind limbs (legs) to the vertebral column are called Pelvic gridle.

Structure of Pelvic Girdle
Each pelvic girdle consist of large bone called Innominate. It is formed by the fusion of three bones called Illium, Ischium and Pubis.

Hind Limbs
The hind limbs consist of
* Femur (1) 
* Tibia (1) 
* Fibula (1) + Patella (1) 
* Tarsals (8) 
* Meta tarsals (5) 
* Phalanges (14) 

Arrangement of Bones in Fore Limb
Thigh: Femur is the largest bones of the body which forms a ball and socket joint with the Pelvic girdle.
Knee and Calf: At the distal end the femur from knee joint with the proximal end of two parallel bones called tibia and fibula.
Ankle: The distal end of the tibia and fibula form a joint with eight tarsals, which are also attached with five meta tarsal bones of foot.
Digits: Five rows of the fourteen phalonges of the toes are attached with meta tarsals.

Types of Skeleton
There are three main types of skeleton in animals. 
1. Hydrostatic Skeleton 
2. Exoskeleton 
3. Endo Skeleton 

1. Hydrostatic Skeleton 
A fluid filled gastro vascular cavity or coelom act like a skeleton are called hydrostatic skeleton. 

Functions 
Hydrostatic skeleton provides support and resistance to the contraction of muscle so motility results. 
Example 
Hydrostatic skeleton found in annelids and other soft bodies invertebrate. 
Mechanism of Working 
The fluid filled body cavity of in these animals is surrounding by layer of two types of muscles. 

• Circular Muscles

• Longitudinal Muscles

When circular muscles contract and pressure comes on body fluid by this process the body become elongated and hard. 
When the longitudinal muscles contract the body becomes short and thick due to the lengthen and shorten body move easily in the soil. 

2. Exoskeleton 
The hard non living external covering that is secreted by the outer epidermal layer of animals are called exoskeleton. 
OR 
The skeleton present outside the body are called Exoskeleton. 
Composition of Exoskeleton 
Exoskeleton are made up of different materials. 
1. Silica 
The exoskeleton of single celled diatoms made up of silica. 
2. Calcium Carbonate 
The exoskeleton of mollusks made up of lime (Caco3) 
3. Cuticle 
The exoskeleton of arthropods made up of hard, non living substance called chitin. It is the complex of protein and carbohydrates. This exoskeleton is dividing by soft flexible joints. 
Functions 

• It provides a surface to which internal muscle can be attached.

• It provides the protection and support to the body.

• It is not help in locomotion but in arthropod. It helps in movement due to joint.

Disadvantages of Exoskeleton 
1. Due to exoskeleton the size of arthropods is short. 
2. Growth is also limited because the exoskeleton is non living and non growing. 
3. Moulting or ecdysis: When the size of animal increase the exoskeleton become short and it is separated from the body. It is replaced by a new skeleton this process are called moulting. 

3. Endoskeleton 
The skeleton present inside the body and made up of rigid living connecting tissue bones and cartilages are called endoskeleton. 


Functions of Skeleton

1. Support and Shape 
It provides supporting frame work of the body, it gives the body a particular shape. 
2. Protection 
Bones protect critical internal organs, such as brain spinal cord, heart, lungs and reproductive organs. 
3. Movement 
Skeletal muscles attached to the bones help move the body. 
4. Mineral Homeostasis 
Bones serve as depository for calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium. Bones can release or take up minerals through negative feed back mechanisms to maintain the homeostasis. 
5. Blood Cell Production 
Red and white blood cells are produced in bone narrow. 


Bones and Cartilages

In vertebrate animals the endoskeleton contains two types of connective tissues. 
1. Bones 
2. Cartilage 

1. Bones 
Bones is the most rigid form of connective tissue. 
Structure of Bones 
Cell of bones are called Osteocytes. They secrete a gel like matrix around them. It contains a network of collagen fibres but unlike cartilages it is hardened by the deposition of Osteoblasts and crystals of calcium phosphate. This process called Ossification or Calcification, takes place in the presence of vitamin D. 

2. Cartilage 
Cartilage is the softer and flexible form of connective tissue. 
Structure of Cartilage 
The living cells of cartilage are called chondrocytes. These cells secrete flexible, elastic, non-living matrix. It consists of protein and polysaccharides. The main protein in the matrix is collagen whose fibres run in all directions and surrounds the chondrocytes. No blood vessels penetrate into this cartilage. 
Function 
It covers ends of the bone at the joint and also supports the flexible portion of nose, external ears and larynx. 

Joint
The point at which two or more bones connect each other are called Joint. The help in motality of skeleton. 

Types of Joint on the Basis of Movement
Joints are classified on the basis of the amount of movement allowed by them, into three categories. 
i. Immovable Joints 
ii. Slightly Moveable Joints 
iii. Freely Moveable 

i. Immovable Joints 
The joints fit together tightly like the pieces to a puzzle. These joints are called immoveable joints or fixed joints because they don't allow the joining bones to move. 
Example 
Example of fixed joint are the joints of skull in the term of case to protect the brain. 

ii. Partially Moveable Joints 
The joints which allow a little government is called partially moveable joints or slightly moveable joints. 
Example 
Example of partially moveable joint is the attachment of ribs with vertebrate. These joints permit out ribs to moves ups and down while we breath. 

iii. Freely Moveable Joints 
The joints which allow the movement in several directions is called freely moveable joints. 

Types of Freely Moveable Joint 
Freely moveable joint that are present in human skeleton system are 
i. Ball and Socket Joint 
ii. Hing Joint 
iii. Pivot Joint 
iv. Sliding Joint 
v. Gliding Joint 

i. Ball and Socket Joint 
The joint which allow the movement in all directions even in a circle is called ball and socket joint. 
In this joint ball like head of the long bone of leg and upper are fit into a cup like socket of girdle. 
Example 
Joint of hibs and shoulder 

ii. Hing Joint 
The joints that allow the movement in two directions such as show the back and forth movement is called hing joint. 
Example 
Joint of fingers, elbow and knee. 

iii. Pivot Joint 
The joints which allow a twisting movement as well as side way movement is called pivot joint. 
Example 
Joints of elbow and skull connected to the spine are the examples of pivot joint. 

iv. Sliding Joint 
The joints which allow the bones to slides over one another and show the movement in many directions are called sliding joint. 
Example 
Joints of wrist and ankle. 

v. Gliding Joints 
The joints in which bones moves easily over one another in a back and forth manner is called gliding joints. 
Example 
Joints of vertebral column that makes the back bone flexible are the example of gliding joint. 

Structure of Hing and Ball and Socket Joint 

• At moveable joints the joining bones are held in place by strong straps of connective tissues called Ligaments. Ligaments connect the bones to each other and don't allow the bones to slip and dislocate at a joint. As ligaments stretch they allow the joints to move.

• Highly moveable joints also need lubrication and cushioning to prevent the adjoining bones crushing with each other. This is the function of Synovial Cavities prevent around fluid the reduces the friction and keeps the joint moving freely.

• In addition cartilage pads at the end of bones act as shock absorber and present bones from grinding together.

Deformities Skeleton

Human skeleton support and upright body. Sometimes in skeleton certain disorders are developed which weak a skeleton system are termed as Deformities of skeleton. 


Causes of Deformities

The causes of deformities are 
1. Genetic Disorder 
2. Hormonal Disorder 
3. Nutritional or Malnutrition 
4. Physical Trauma 

1. Genetic Disorder 
i. Cleft Palate 
It is a genetic disorder in which cleft present in the palate which interferes with sucking. It can lead to inhalation of food into the lungs causing aspiration pneumonia. 
ii. Microcephaly 
It is genetic disorder in which the skull becomes small sized. 
iii. Arithritis 
Arthritis is the inflammatory or degenerative disease that damage the joints. Osteo arthritis is the most chronic arthritis which is a degenerative joint disease also caused by genetic defect. 

2. Hormonal Disorder 
The skeleton deformities of the bones caused by hormonal deficiency. 
i. Osteoporosis 
Osteoporosis mostly occurs in aged women, which is related to decrease the level of estrogen hormone. 
Symptoms 
In osteoporosis, the bones become porous, thin and weak and consequently easily breakable. 

3. Nutritional Or Malnutrition 
The skeleton deformities occur in the bones due to nutritional deficiency. 
Some of the nutritional disorders are 
i. Osteomalacia 
Osteomalacia is the softening of bones in which the bones receive in adequate minerals and patient feels pain when weight is put on affected bones. In this disease calcium salts are not deposited and hence bones soften and weaken weight bearing bones of legs and pelvis, bend and deform. 
ii. Rickets 
Rickets in children results in bowed legs and deformed pelvis. It is caused by deficiency of calcium in diet or vitamin D deficiency. It treated by vitamin D fortified milk and exposing sink to sunlight to cure disorder. 

4. Physical Trauma 
Certain diseases caused by physical trauma are as follows 
i. Disc slip 
ii. Spondylosis 
iii. Arthritis 
iv. Sciatica 

i. Disc Slip 
The backbone of body consists of many vertebrate. Between these vertebrate special cartilage pad are present called Disc. 
Functions 
The discs act as shock absorber during walking, jumping, running and lesser extend to the bend laterlly. 
Disease 
If due to physical trauma, the cartilaginous ring of disc ruptures and displaces it is called Disc Slip. 
Symptoms 

• Protrution presses spinal nerve and cause sever pain.

• Unability to move.

Treatment 

• As a result of disc slip the person should use hard bed and should take rest for long time.

• Pain killer medicine should be used.

ii. Spondylosis 
Spondylosis is deformity of joints of two vertebrate particularly of neck region when the space between two vertebrate becomes narrow. 
Symptoms 
Due to spondylosis the nerves of spinal cord are pressed. It causes pain in neck shoulder and upper parts of arm. 
Treatment 

• In this condition a hard collar is used around neck.

• Pain killer are used.

iii. Arthritis 
Arthritis is inflammatory or degeneration disease that damage joints. 
Causes 
It may be due to 
Hereditary

Viral Infection

Injury

Old age

Symptoms 
It results in pain, stiffness, swelling of the joint.

• Smooth and flexible cartilage between the bones of a joint is denatured by the deposits of calcium, which makes the cartilages hard.

Treatment 
Knee joint and hip joint can be replaced by artificial rubber or plastic joint.

• Sometimes it is treated by medicines and physiotherapy.

iv. Sciatica 
Sciatica is a nerve pain of hind limbs which occur when nerve of sciatic plexus is being pressed. 
Causes 
It may be due to 
Injury

• Disc Slip

• Improper administration of injection in the iliac vein.

Symptoms 
It makes the leg highly painful and virtually immovable.

Treatment 
The treatment of sciatica is very slow and prolonged. There is no permanent treatment of this disorder. 
@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

Muscular System

Muscle made up to muscular tissue. A muscular tissue is a group of specialized cells contain numerous filament of protein and perform a unique functions to generates a pulling force. 
There are more than 600 muscles in a human body and almost half of body weight is due muscles. 

Types of Muscles
The vertebrate possess three kinds of muscles 
1. Skeleton Muscles 
2. Smooth Muscles 
3. Cardiac Muscles 

1. Skeleton Muscles 
The muscles that are attached with the skeleton and associated with the movement of bones are called Skeleton Muscles. 
Characteristics 
Skeleton muscles are voluntary in function.

• They can contract strongly and rapidly but fatigue quickly.

• Skeleton muscle are striated muscles because they show alternate dark and light band.

• They are under the control of somatic nervous system.

Muscles are attached to the bones by special structure called tendon. 
Functions 
With the help of skeleton muscles all the body parts can move. 

2. Smooth Muscles 
The simplest type of muscles which form all the internal hollow body's organs and it found in throughout animal kingdom, called smooth muscles. 
Structure 
Smooth muscles are structurally very simple muscles. They are spindle shapes uni-nucleated cells. They are arranged in a sheet around the hollow organs of the body. 
Characteristics 
These are unstriated muscles.

• They are involuntary in function i.e. their movement is not in our control but they are controlled by hormones and autonomic nervous system.

• They contract more slowly than skeleton muscles but it can prolonged for a long period of time.

Location 
These muscles are found in the blood vessels, digestive tract and many other organs. 
Functions 

• Smooth muscles push the food to the digestive track.

• They empty the urinary bladder.

• They control the diameter of the blood vessels.

• They also control the diameter of the pupit of eye.

3. Cardiac Muscles 
The muscles which are present only inside the wall of heart are called Cardiac Muscles. 
Characteristics 
These are striated muscles.

• They are involuntary in function and fatigueless.

• They contract and relax continuously in a rhythmic pattern. This rhythmic contraction called heart beat.

• Cardiac muscles have more mitochondria to continuous supply of energy to the tissues of heart.

• Cardiac muscles regulate by the sino atrial node (SAN) or pace maker.

Heart is quite independent of nervous system for its contraction and heart beat is generated by the cardiac muscles itself. 
Structure 
They are uninucleated or binucleated and branched to create a meshwork of contractile tissue hence their fibres can not be separated like that of a skeletal muscle. 
Functions 
The function of cardiac muscle is pump the blood.

Structure of Skeleton Muscles
Muscle Fibre 
Each skeleton muscle is actually a bundle of long and parallel closely packed thread like multinucleated cells called the muscle fibres. 
Size 
Skeleton muscle fibres are huge cells. Their diameters is 10 to 100 mm. 
Structure o Muscle Fibre 
Each muscle fibre is bounded by thin elastic membrane called Sarcolemma. Similar to plasma membrane. Inside the sarcolemma, there is a semifluid called Sarcoplasm. 
Myofibril 
Each muscle fibre contain a large number of many individual, ultra microscopic contractile fine thread like structure called Myofibril. 
The diameter of myofibril is 1-2 mm that run in parallel fashion and extend entire length of the cell. 
Sarcomere 
The myofibrils consist of smaller contractile units called Sarcomere. 
Structure of Sarcomere 
In each sarcomere a series of dark and light band are evident along the length of each myofibril. 
Microfilaments 
The myofibril contains myofilaments or mocrofilaments. Microfilament is made up of two types of filament. 
i. Thick Filament 
ii. Thin Filament 

i. Thick Filament 
The central thick filaments extend the entire length of the A-band. The thick filament which is about 16mm in diameter is composed of myosin. 
Structure of Myosin 
Each myosin molecule has tail terminating in two globular heads. Myosin tail consists of two long polypeptide chain coiled together. The heads are sometimes called cross bridge because they link the thick and thin myofilaments together during contraction. 
ii. Thin Filament 
The thin filaments extend across. The I-band and pathway into A-band. Thin filaments are 7-8 mm thick and composed of chiefly actin molecule. 
Structure of Actin 
The actin molecules are arranged in two chains which twist around each other like twisted double strand of pcarls. Twisting around the actin chains are two strands of another protein tropomyosin. The other major protein in thin filament is troponin. It is actually three polypeptide complex. One bind to actin, another binds to tropomyosin while third binds calcium ions. 

I-Band 
The area which appear light and contain only thin filament is called I-Band. 
H-Band 
The area which appear bright and contain only thick filament is called H-Band. 
A-Band 
The area of sarcomere which appear dark and contain both thick and thin filament is called A-Band 

Mechanism of Contraction of Skeleton Muscles
There are two theories which explain the mechanism of contraction of skeleton muscles. 
1. Sliding Filament Theory 
2. Cross Bridge Theory 

1. Sliding Filament Theory 
Introduction 
H.Huxley and A.F. Huxley and their colleagues suggested a hypothesis in 1954 to explain all even in muscle contraction this is called Sliding Filament Theory. 
Statement 
According to this theory 
The thin and thick filament of a muscle fibre move together by sliding over each other. This is like sliding the fingers of our hand between fingers of the other hand. The sliding of the filaments is the reason that the muscle gets shorter and thicker. 

2. Cross Bridge Theory 
Introduction 
When the bulbous heads end of the myosin filament discovered so the another theory explain the mechanism of contraction of muscle which show physical contact are called Cross Bridge Theory. 
Statement 
According to this theory 
The bulbarious head of thick filament myosin become attached to binding sites on the actin filament. The cross bridge are formed then contract to pull the actin filament towards center of sarcomere and the muscles become contract. 

Motor Unit
A set of all the muscle fibres innervated by the branched of the single neuron and a single muscle fibre is made up of many motors units. 

Controls of Muscle Contraction
The contraction of a muscle depends upon three factors. 
1. Nerve Impulse 
2. Energy 
3. Calcium Ions 

1. Nerve Impulses 
Nerve impulse cause muscle contraction. The nerve impulses (nerve message) are recieved from brain and spinal cord through motor nerves. The muscles entirely depend upon these nerve impulses. When these impulses do not reach to the muscles, they become fatigue. They loss stimulation and contraction stops gradually. 

2. Energy 
Muscles also need energy for contraction. Energy required for muscle contraction comes from food. The energy from food is stored in muscles in the form of glycogen. It is transformed from glycogen to creative phosphate and finally to ATP where it is stored and is readily available for use of muscle. 

3. Calcium Ions 
Calcium ions play very important role in the initiation of muscle fibre contraction. It is stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum. 

• When the nerve impulse reaches the acetyl choline is released.

• Due to acetyl choline great number of calcium ions released from Sarcoplasmic reticulum.

• The calcium ions bind to troponin molecule and exposed the active site of actin molecule.

• The cross bridge is formed between actin and myosin and the muscles become contracted.

• After contraction has occurred the impulse stops, calcium ions back into sarcoplasmic reticulum and the muscles fibres relaxed again.

Fatigue
Muscle fatigue is a state of physiological unability to contract. 
OR 
When the muscles become functionless it is called Fatigue. 

Causes 
ATP Deficit 
Muscle fatigue results from relative deficit of ATP, not its total absence. 
Lactic Acid Accumulation 
Excess accumulation of lactic acid due to the breakdown of glucose in absence of O2 and ionic imbalances also causes muscle pH to drop and the muscle to ache hence causes extreme fatigue. 
Recovery 
When the heavy exercise stops and continues the supply the excess oxygen to the fatigued tissues, which now break lactic acid into water and carbon dioxide. Lactic acid is converted the fatigued condition of the muscle is over. The amount of oxygen needed to remove lactic from the tired muscle is called Oxygen Dept. 

Abnormal Muscle Contraction
There are two common abnormal muscle contractions 
1. Tetany 
2. Cramps 

1. Tetany 
Tetany is a sudden involuntary contraction of striated muscle. 
Causes 
Tetany is caused by the low level of calcium in the blood. 
Symptoms 
It excites neurons which influence the muscles contract before gaining the normal position of actin and myosin filaments, therefore it is called abnormal function. In tetany there is continue contraction of muscle fibres. Due to this continue contraction the Ca++ ions cannot be separated from the sarcoplasm of muscles and continue contraction becomes very rapid, so it is known as Tetany. If tetany occurs in respiratory organs, they may become functionless. 

2. Cramps 
It is also known as titanic contraction of entire muscle. It lasts for just few seconds or several hours, causing the muscles to become taut and painful. It is most common in thigh and hip muscles, it usually occurs at night or after exercise. 
Causes 
The main causes for cramps are as follows 

• Sugar level in blood is reduced

• Sometimes dehydration occurs in the body.

• Electrolytes (ions) are not in balance state.

• Extra exercise is also harmful and causes cramps.

Treatment 
Simultaneous squeezing and stretching the cramped muscle may help. 


Antagonisitic Muscles

The muscles work in pairs with one muscle working against the other are called Antagonisitic Muscles. 
Types of Antagonisitic Muscles 
On the basis of their function and affect they produce the muscles are of following type. 
1. Protractor and Retractor 
Protractor Muscle: These muscle pull the lower part of limb in forward direction. 
Retractor Muscle: These muscle pull the limb in backward direction. 
2. Abductor and Adductor 
Abductor Muscle: These muscle pull the limb away from the body. 
Adductor Muscle: These muscle pull the limb towards the body. 
3. Flexor and Extensor 
Flexor Muscle: They close the joint. 
Extensor Muscle: These muscle open the joint. 

Locomation in Protozoa
Protozoans are the unicellular animals. Then locomotion is carried out by single called structures. These are of three types Pseudopodia, cilia and flagella. These structures arise from the body surface and may also help to capture the food. 

1. Locomotion in Amoeba 
Organs of Locomotion 
Locomotion in Amoeba is called amoeboid movement. Amoeboid movement takes place by means of Pseudopodia. 
Method of Locomotion 
The pseudopodia are finger like projections in the direction of movement. After the formation of pseudopodia the Amoeba attaches with the substratum and pull the body in the forward direction. 
The exact mechanism of pseudopodia formation is still not known. 

2. Locomotion in Euglena 
Organs o Locomotion 
Euglena moves with the help of flagellum. 
Methods of Locomotion 
As the flagellum is whipped backward the organism moves forward. However, when flagellum moves forward the Euglena does not move backward. Flagellum is at is anterior end of the body and pulls the organism forward. Wave of activity generated by itself and they pass in spiral fashion from its base in spiral fashion from its base to its tip. 
Euglena increases amplitude and velocity. The activity of the flagellum caused the body of Euglena to rotate forward abouts its axis. 
Euglenoid Movement 
In this mode of locomotion, a wave of contraction and expansion passes from the anterior to posterior in entire body. The contraction and expansion is brought by the contraction of protoplasm. The body becomes shorter and wider first at the anterior, then in the middle and finally at posterior. 

3. Locomotion in Paramecium 
Organs of Locomotion 
Paramecium moves with the help of Cilia. The movement by cilia is called Ciliary movement. 
Structure of Cilia 
Cilia are short fine thread-like extensions of the cell membrane. 
Method of Locomotion 
The locomotion in paramecium take place by the beating of these cilia. The beating action occurs in two strokes. 
Effective Strokes 
During effective stroke the cilia become rigid and bent backward but obliquely propel the animal forward. 
Recovery Strokes 
During recovery stroke the cilia become softer and returns to it original position. 
As a result of effective and recovery stroke paramecium swims against water. The body move forwards. 

4. Locomotion in Animals 
1. Locomotion in Jelly Fish 
Jelly fish has umbrella like body which floats on the surface of water at the mercy of waves. However it can swim slowly by muscular contraction. 
Mechanism 
In jelly fish the water enters in the umbrella like body (Bell). Then the muscle of the body contract and water is forced out in a jet, as a result animal movement is known as "Jet Propulsion". The jelly fish moves in jerks in the direction opposite to the expelled water. 

2. Locomotion in Snail 
Organs of Locomotion 
Snail crawl or move very slowly by "foot". 
Mechanism 
The foot of snail produces a wave of muscular contraction on its under side. This wave is from front to rear and animal is pushed forward. The movement is lubricated by slime which is poured on land immediately from glands below the mouth. 

3. Locomotion in Star Fish 
Organs of Locomotion 
Starfish moves with the help of tube feet. The tube feet are present on both sides of radial canal that extends up to the tip of arm. 
Structure of Tube Feet 
The tube feet are hollow muscular and are like rubber bulb of the medicine dropper. The tube feet consist of three parts. 

• Ampula

• Podia

• Sucker

Mechanism 
In starfish locomotion is controlled by a special water vascular system. Water is drawn into the body through a small opening and is passed through a ring canal to large number of hollow muscular tube feet. The tube feet extend when water is pumped into them then they fix themselves by suction cup (sucker) with some object. When sucker muscle contract the water is pushed back into the ampullae, making the tube feet flaccid losing the grip and the starfish is pulled forwards.

Reproduction 
The process through which organisms produce young ones of their own kind to maintain their species are called as Reproduction. 
Types of Reproduction

There are two types of reproduction. 
1. Asexual Reproduction 
2. Sexual Reproduction 


1. Asexual Reproduction
The type of reproduction in which fusion of gamets does not take place and requires only a single parental organism and the offspring produced are exact copies of their parents. This type of reproduction is called Asexual Reproduction. 
Asexual Reproduction of Plants 
There are two methods of asexual reproduction in plants. 
1. Natural Method of Asexual Reproduction 
2. Artificial Method of Asexual Reproduction 

1. Natural Method of Asexual Reproduction 
In nature, plants reproduce asexually by following methods. 
i. By Spores or Sporulation 
ii. Vegetative Propagation 
iii. Apomixis 

i. By Spores or Sporulation 
During alternation of generation plant produce haploid cell by meiosis called Spores. Each spore can develop into new organism without fertilization. The process of formation of unicellular spores is called Sporulation. 
Example 
Sporulation occurs in bacteria, protozoans, algae, fungi, mosses and fern as well as plants. 

ii. Vegetative Propagation 
The process which involves the separation of the part of the parent plant which then develop into new plant is called as Vegetative Propagation. 
OR 
When a new plant develops from tissue, organs of a plant or outgrowth of a plant. This type of reproduction is called Vegetative Propagation. 
Process 
In this process a plants part is separated which develops into new plant such as stem, leaves roots or buds may take part in the formation of new plant. 
Methods of Vegetative Propagation 
There are various method of propagation of plant by vegetative reproduction for improving crops, orchads and ornamental plants are as follows 
i. By Cutting 
ii. By Grafting 

i. By Cutting 
In this method stem or branch is cut from the plant. At the cut end of the shoot a mass of dividing undifferentiated cells called a callus forms and then adventitous roots develop form the callus. If the shoot fragment includes a node, then adventitous root forms without callus stage. 
Example 
Sugar cane, sweet potato and rose can be propagated by cutting. In raspberry and black berries root cutting are also used for artificial vegetative propagation. 

ii. By Grafting 
This is a technique whereby a branch from a desired variety of plant is joined to another plant with well established root system. The plant from which the branch is taken is called Scion and the plant to which it is joined is called Stock. The two plants involved are normally the different varieties of same species. 
Example 
Orange, lime and mango can be propagated by grafting. 

iii. Apomixis 
The modified form of asexual reproduction in which seeds are formed without fertilization is called Apomixis. 
Mechanism 
In apomixis, a diploid cell in the ovule gives rise to the embryo without any fertilization and the ovules mature into the seeds. 
Example 
In Dandelions and other plants seed formation take place without fertilization. 

2. Artificial Method of Asexual Reproduction 
In plant vegetative reproduction is performed by artificial method, which are as follows 
i. Tissue Culture or Test Tube Cloning 
ii. Protoplast Fusion Technique 

i. Tissue Culture or Test Tube Cloning 
Tissue culture or cloning is a special technique which is used to produce varieties of plants. By this technique, a group of genetically identical offspring produced by asexual method called Clones. 
Procedure 
In this method, pieces of tissues are cut from the parent plant or from a single parenchymatous cell in a medium containing all the nutrients and hormones.
The culture cells divide and form an undifferentiated Callus.
The callus then produces root and shoot with fully differentiated cells.
The test tube plant can be transferred to soil where they continue their growth.
Application 
In plants tissue culture is also used in genetic engineering. To introduce new genes in plant body pieces of tissue or cells are used. By this technique, we produced a new variety of plant by introducing new DNA molecule. 
Example 
By cloning many thousand plants are produced from one plant. This method is used in Orchards and pinus trees to obtain wood. 

Advantages of Tissue Culture 
The main advantages of tissue culture are as follows 
i. Development of Strong Plant: By this technique plants of Agriculture and horticulture are produced. These plants are strong than other plants produced by seeds. 
ii. Development of Similar Plant: By this technique plants of similar character are developed. 
iii. Development of Defence System in Plant: These plants have developed defence mechanism against any disease. 
iv. Production of Useful Chemicals: By this technique, many useful chemicals are obtained such as shikonin (a dye used in silk and in the treatment of injuries caused by burning. 

Disadvantages of Tissue Culture 
There are also some disadvantages of tissue culture where are as follows 
i. Production of Sterile Plant: The plant produced by this technique may be genetically sterile, do not reproduce by sexual method. 
ii. Variation in Chromosome: This technique may cause change in the structure and number of chromosome. 

ii. Protoplast Fusion Technique 
Another technique known as protoplast fusion technique is developed to produce new varieties of plants. 
Procedure 
In this technique, outer cell wall is removed around the protoplast. After protoplast of one or more cells are fused together, then their protoplast are for culture. These protoplast produce a wall around them, then they are change into new plant. Protoplast of either same or different species may used for this technique.
Example 
In potato and wild night shade plant this technique is used. 

2. Sexual Reproduction
The type of reproduction in which fusion of gametes (sperm and ova) take place and two parents (male and female) are involved is termed as Sexual Reproduction. 

Sexual Reproduction in Plant 
In plants sexual reproduction takes place by three methods. 
i. Isogamy 
ii. Oogamy 
iii. Heterogamy 

i. Isogamy 
The simplest type of sexual reproduction in which two morphologically similar gametes take part in fertilization to produced zygospore which then develop into new plant is called Isogamy. 
It is also known as conjugation which means marriages of equals. 
Example 
This process occurs in algae and lower plants. 

ii. Oogamy 
The type of sexual reproduction in which a flagellated motile sperm fertilizes with non motile egg to produced a diploid zygote which then develop into new individual is called Oogamy. 
Example 
Some species of algae undergoes Oogamy. 

iii. Heterogamy 
The type of sexual reproduction in which two different structure gamets fused i.e. non flagellated large size female gamete fuses with small size flagellated male gamete to produced zygote which then develop into new plant is called Heterogamy. 
It is also known as anisogamy. 
Example 
In higher plants such as bryophyte, heterogamy is present. 

Germination 
The process in which dormant or sleeping embryo awakes up renews its life and develops into a seeding is called as Germination. 
OR 
The breaking of dormancy of seed to produce seedling is called Germination. 

Kinds of Germination
Seed can germinate into three ways i.e. 
1. Epigeal Germination 
2. Hypogeal Germination 
3. Viviparous Germination 

1. Epigeal Germination 
Epi => above, geo => earth 
The kind of germination in which cotyledons came above the soil due to rapid growth of hypocotyl is called Epigeal Germination. 
Example 
Caster oil seed, tomato, cotton etc. 

2. Hypogeal Germination 
Hypo => below, geo => earth 
The kind of germination in which cotyledons remain under the soil due to rapid growth of epicotyl is called Hypogeal Germination. 
Example 
Maize-grain, Pea-gram etc. 

3. Viviparous Germination 
The special of germination in which seed germinates within fruit is called Viviparous Germination. 
Process 
The fruit is still attached to parent plant. Redicle comes out of the fruit which becomes swollen and heavy due to increasing weight the seedling gets detached and falls vertically into the soft mud gets embeded and starts growing. 
Example 
Thizophora, coconut, date palm etc. 
Seed 
Seed may be defined as 
A ripened ovule or a part of a plant body in which embryo lives in dormant condition is called Seed. 

Structure of Seed
Structure of seed can be divided into two parts 
1. External Structure 
2. Internal Structure 

1. External Structure 
Externally seed consists of following parts 
Seed Coat 
The seed is covered from outside by a coat called Seed Coat. 
The seed coat is formed by integuments. It is made up of two layers. 
Testa 
The outer thicker layer is called Testa. 
Tegmen 
The inner thin layer is called Tegmen. 


Chromosomes as Carrier of Genes
Genes are small bodies found in the chromosome. 
Chromosome are considered as the carrier of genes. 
The chromosomes can be separately identified visually but the genes are very small units. And so far have not been seen even with the best microscope.
The chromosome and gene behave as hereditary units but the genes can not be considered outside the chromosome.
At the time of meiosis, the separation of homologous chromosomes takes place which result in the segregation of gene pairs.
In the genotype of every individual one member of each pair of genes is contributed by one parent and the other by the other parent.

Chromosomal Theory of Heredity
Introduction 
The chromosomal theory of inheritance was first formulated by the American Biologist "Walter Sutton" in 1902. 

Postulates
The main postulates of this theory are as under 

1. Hereditary Materials 
Reproduction involves the initial union of only two cells, egg and sperm. If Mendel's model is correct then these two gametes must make equal hereditary contributions. Sperm, however contain little cytoplasm, therefore the hereditary material must reside within the nuclei of the gametes. 

2. Segregation of Chromosomes 
Chromosomes segregated during meiosis in a manner similar to that exhibited by the elements of Mendel's model. 

3. Number of Chromosome 
Gametes have one copy of each pair of homologous chromosomes, diploid individuals have two copies. 

4. Independent Assortment 
During meiosis each pair of homologous chromosomes orients on the metaphase plate independent of any other pair. 

Objection 
The objection on chromosomal theory of hereditary is that when there is independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis, the number of factors (genes) is more than the number of chromosomes. This is considered as a fatal objection about Sutton's theory. 

Evidence
The material which transmits the parental characters into the coming generation is called Hereditary Material. 

Fredrick Griffith's Experiment 
Introduction 
Fred Griffith in 1928 provided the evidence of hereditary material in bacteria. 
Experimental Material 
He was working on strains of steptococcus pneumoniae, which occurs in two distinct different forms. 

R-Type 
Rough surfaced, non-capsulated bacteria, without the capability of producing pneumonia. 
i.e. non-virulent 

S-Type 
Smooth surfaced, capsulated bacteria, with the capability of producing pneumonia i.e. virulent. 
Steps of Experiment

He observed that when the injected R-type bacteria in the mice, there was no ill effect.
When he injected the S-type, they proved to be fatal.
He also observed, when he injected both the bacteria separately after killing them by heating under high temperature, the mice did not develop the disease.
He also observed that, when the injected the living R-type with heat-killed S-type, there was a high morality among the mice.

Conclusion
Fred Griffith concluded that the R-type bacteria gained genetic property of S-type inactive bacteria when they kept together, so R-type bacteria converted into virulent S-type by the activity of DNA. Hence by this experiment, it can be proved that DNA is a genetic material. 

A Very, Macleod and McCarty's Experiment
Introduction 
In 1944, after a decade of research, Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty and Colin Macleod discovered that the transforming agent had to be DNA. 

Experiment 
They performed various experiments and found out that the only substance, which carried the transforming capability, was DNA because if the enzyme deoxyriba-nuclease was added to the bacteria, the transforming capability was lot. 

Hershey and Chase's Experiment
Introduction 
In 1952, Hershey and chase performed experiment to proof that DNA is a hereditary material. 

Experience at Material 
Hershey and chase labeled protein coat and DNA of Bacteriophage separately. Protein coat labeled with radioactive sulphur and DNA with radioactive phosphorus. These two viruses use to attack bacterial cells. 

Steps Experiment
Hershey and chase observed that if cultures of bacteriophage are labeled with radioactive phosphorus [P32 labeling DNA] or with sulphur [S35 for labeling protein coat].
bacteriophage is ruptured, the DNA is released and treated with deoxyribsonucleas, the DNA breaks up into fragments in the solution.
The empty protein coats of the ruptured membrane appear as coats all the P32 or S35 were made to inject bacteria and multiply by the help of special technique, all the S35 labeled protein were removed.
The new phage formed contained only P32 indicating the presence of DNA molecule.

Conclusion
The conclusion appears similar to the transforming principle in bacteria, showing that DNA is the genetic material in phage, transmitted from one generation to the next. 

Watson and Crick's Model of DNA 
Introduction 
James Watson and Francis crick, in 1953 proposed structure of the DNA molecule. 
Structure of DNA
Watson and Crick suggested a ladder like organization of DNA. 

1. Double Helix 
   Each molecule of DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains which twisted around each other and form a double helix. 
   
   2. Backbone of DNA 
   The uprights of the ladder are made up of sugar and phosphate parts of nucleotide and the rungs are made up of a paired nitrogenous bases. 
   
   3. Pairing of Bases 
   The pairs are always as follows 
   Adenine always pairs with thymine and cytosine with Guanine.
   The two polynucleotide chains are complimentary to each other and held together by hydrogen bonds.
   
   Hydrogen Bonding
   There are two hydrogen bonds between Adenine and Thymine (A=T) and three between Cytosine and Guanine (C≡G). 
   Distance 
   Both polynucleotide strands remain separated by 20 Aº distance.
   The coiling of double helix is right handed and complete turn occurs after 34 Aº. In each turn 10 nucleotide pairs are present, therefore the distance between two pairs is about 3.4 Aº.
   
   Genes - The Unit of Hereditary Information 
   Introduction 
   Archibald Garrod discovered in 1902, that certain diseases were more prevalent among some families and were inherited as a recessive Mendelian trait. 
   Alkaptonuria 
   Alkaptonuria is a disease in which the urine contained a substance called "Alkapton" now known as "Homogentisic acid" which was immediately oxidizes to black when exposed to the air. 
   
   Causes 
   He suggested that this disease occurred due to absence of an enzyme, which could break the "Alkapton" down to other products so it would not build up in the urine.
   He proposed that the condition was "An inborn error of metabolism" which is occurring due to changes in the hereditary information, which must have occurred in one of the ancestors of the affected families.
   
   Conclusion
   He concluded that the inherited disorders might reflect enzyme deficiencies. 
   
   Genome 
   Definition 
   The total genomic constitution of an individual is known as Genome. 
   Example 
   In a bacterial cell, a single circular chromosome along with plasmid is genome of bacteria, while in a human being all twenty two pairs of autosome along with a pair of sex-chromosomes constitute genome. 
   
   Replication of DNA 
   Definition 
   The mechanism in which DNA prepares its copies is called DNA replication. 
   OR 
   When the formation of new DNA molecule takes place in the cells without any change, it is known as Replication of DNA. 
   
   Semi Conservative Replication 
   Definition 
   The type of replication in which new daughter double helical duplex contain one stand old and another newly synthesized is called Semi Conservative Replication. 
   
   The Meselson Stahl Experiment 
   Introduction 
   Mathew meselson and Frank Stahl performed experiments to test the semi-conservative method of DNA replication. 
   
   Experiment 
   They grew bacteria in a medium containing Nitrogen-15 (N15), a heavy isotope of the nitrogen.
   The DNA after several generations became denser than normal because the entire bacterial DNA now contained Nitrogen-15 (N15).
   They then transferred the bacteria into a new medium containing lighter isotope Nitrogen 14 (N14) and analyzed the cultures for changes in the DNA.
   At first DNA, which the bacteria synthesized, was all heavy.
   After one round the density of the DNA fell exactly to the value one half between the all heavy isotope DNA and all light isotope DNA.
   
   Result 
   This showed that after one round of replication, each of the daughter DNA duplex contained one strand of heavy isotope, after two rounds half contained none of the heavy isotope strand to form light duplex and half contained one of the heavy strand isotope. 
   It was now confirmed that the semi conservative method of the replication of DNA replication was true. 
   
   One Gene One Enzyme Hypothesis 
   Introduction 
   George Beadle and Coworker Edward L. Tatum proved that the information coded within the DNA of a chromosome, is used to specify particular enzymes. 
   
   Method of Study
   Beadle and Tatum created Mandelian mutation in the chromosomes of the fungus called Neurospora by the use of the x-rays.
   They studied the effect of the mutations caused by them and suggested "One Gene One Enzyme Hypothesis".
   
   Choice of Material
   They choose the bread mold, neurospora crassa as an experimental organism. It had a short life cycle and was easily grown on a defined medium, containing known substances, such as glucose and NaCl.
   The nutrition of Neurospora could be studied by its ability to metabolize sugars and other chemicals the scientist could add or delete from the mixture of the medium.
   
   Production of Mutations
   They induced mutations in Neurospora spores by using x-rays.
   The mutated spores were placed on complete growth media enriched with all necessary metabolites, so keeping the strains alive because the strains were deficient in producing certain compounds necessary for fungus growth due to damaged DNA by earlier irradiation, hence called Mutants.
   
   Identification of Mutant Strains
   To test the mutations, they grew the mutated strains on the animal media containing sugar, ammonia, salt, a few vitamins and water.
   A strain that had lost the ability to make a necessary metabolite, failed to grow on such media.
   Using this approach, they succeeded in identifying and isolating the different mutants.
   
   Identification of Specific Mutations
   To determine the specific nature of each mutation, they added various chemicals to minimize media, to make the strains grow.
   Using this technique, they were able to pinpoint the biochemical problem and thus the genetic deficiency of the mutants.
   Many of the mutants were unable to synthesize a single amino acid or a specific vitamin.
   If a spore lacked the ability to synthesize a particular amino acid, such as Arginine, it only grew if the Arginine was added in the growth medium. Such mutants were called as arg mutants.
   Chromosome mapping studies on the organism facilitated their work and they mapped three areas clusters of mutant Arginine genes.
   For each enzyme in the arginine biosynthetic pathway, they were able to isolate a mutant strain with a defective form of that enzyme and mutation always proved to be located at one of a few specific chromosomal sites, different for each enzyme.
   
   Conclusion
   They concluded that genes produced effects by specifying the structure of enzymes and that each gene encodes the structure of a single enzyme. This was called "One Gene One Enzyme Hypothesis". 
   
   RNA 
   Definition 
   The single stranded helical polynucleotide contain ribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine is called RNA. 
   
   Location 
   RNA is formed in the nucleus (in nucleolus 10%) as well as in the cytoplasm (90%). 
   
   
   
2. Types of RNA
   There are three types of RNA. 
   1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) 
   The class of RNA found in ribosome is called ribosomal RNA. 
   Function 
   During polypeptide synthesis it provides the site on the ribosome where the polypeptide is assembled. 
   
   2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) 
   A second class of RNA is called transfer RNA is much smaller. Human cell contains more than 40 different kinds of tRNA molecules. 
   Functions 
   During polypeptide synthesis tRNA molecules transport the amino acid into the ribosome for the synthesis of polypeptide chain.
   
   
   

Naveed bhai yah download nahe hogay... agar ap ko yah notes chaheya to ap copy kar kay rakh sekhtay hai apnay pas ... wase download nahe hogay..

Sister Copy bhi nhe Ho rahay haina ab kiya keron......right Click to yahan kaam hi nahe kr raha hai..........NHB

dear ap topic link email kari mujhi mai ap ko day donga notes required jo jo bhi ho un kay topics bhejay aur titles aur topic link to mai kar donga ap ko email .. at karimrose77@yahoo.com

 -Chapter 4 - Reproduction


Reproduction 

The process through which organisms produce young ones of their own kind to maintain their species are called as Reproduction. 
Types of Reproduction

There are two types of reproduction. 
1. Asexual Reproduction 
2. Sexual Reproduction 


1. Asexual Reproduction

The type of reproduction in which fusion of gamets does not take place and requires only a single parental organism and the offspring produced are exact copies of their parents. This type of reproduction is called Asexual Reproduction. 

Asexual Reproduction of Plants 
There are two methods of asexual reproduction in plants. 
1. Natural Method of Asexual Reproduction 
2. Artificial Method of Asexual Reproduction 

1. Natural Method of Asexual Reproduction 
In nature, plants reproduce asexually by following methods. 
i. By Spores or Sporulation 
ii. Vegetative Propagation 
iii. Apomixis 

i. By Spores or Sporulation 
During alternation of generation plant produce haploid cell by meiosis called Spores. Each spore can develop into new organism without fertilization. The process of formation of unicellular spores is called Sporulation. 
Example 
Sporulation occurs in bacteria, protozoans, algae, fungi, mosses and fern as well as plants. 

ii. Vegetative Propagation 
The process which involves the separation of the part of the parent plant which then develop into new plant is called as Vegetative Propagation. 
OR 
When a new plant develops from tissue, organs of a plant or outgrowth of a plant. This type of reproduction is called Vegetative Propagation. 
Process 
In this process a plants part is separated which develops into new plant such as stem, leaves roots or buds may take part in the formation of new plant. 
Methods of Vegetative Propagation 
There are various method of propagation of plant by vegetative reproduction for improving crops, orchads and ornamental plants are as follows 
i. By Cutting 
ii. By Grafting 

i. By Cutting 
In this method stem or branch is cut from the plant. At the cut end of the shoot a mass of dividing undifferentiated cells called a callus forms and then adventitous roots develop form the callus. If the shoot fragment includes a node, then adventitous root forms without callus stage. 
Example 
Sugar cane, sweet potato and rose can be propagated by cutting. In raspberry and black berries root cutting are also used for artificial vegetative propagation. 

ii. By Grafting 
This is a technique whereby a branch from a desired variety of plant is joined to another plant with well established root system. The plant from which the branch is taken is called Scion and the plant to which it is joined is called Stock. The two plants involved are normally the different varieties of same species. 
Example 
Orange, lime and mango can be propagated by grafting. 

iii. Apomixis 
The modified form of asexual reproduction in which seeds are formed without fertilization is called Apomixis. 
Mechanism 
In apomixis, a diploid cell in the ovule gives rise to the embryo without any fertilization and the ovules mature into the seeds. 
Example 
In Dandelions and other plants seed formation take place without fertilization. 

2. Artificial Method of Asexual Reproduction 
In plant vegetative reproduction is performed by artificial method, which are as follows 
i. Tissue Culture or Test Tube Cloning 
ii. Protoplast Fusion Technique 

i. Tissue Culture or Test Tube Cloning 
Tissue culture or cloning is a special technique which is used to produce varieties of plants. By this technique, a group of genetically identical offspring produced by asexual method called Clones. 
Procedure 

• In this method, pieces of tissues are cut from the parent plant or from a single parenchymatous cell in a medium containing all the nutrients and hormones.

• The culture cells divide and form an undifferentiated Callus.

• The callus then produces root and shoot with fully differentiated cells.

• The test tube plant can be transferred to soil where they continue their growth.

Application 
In plants tissue culture is also used in genetic engineering. To introduce new genes in plant body pieces of tissue or cells are used. By this technique, we produced a new variety of plant by introducing new DNA molecule. 
Example 
By cloning many thousand plants are produced from one plant. This method is used in Orchards and pinus trees to obtain wood. 

Advantages of Tissue Culture 
The main advantages of tissue culture are as follows 
i. Development of Strong Plant: By this technique plants of Agriculture and horticulture are produced. These plants are strong than other plants produced by seeds. 
ii. Development of Similar Plant: By this technique plants of similar character are developed. 
iii. Development of Defence System in Plant: These plants have developed defence mechanism against any disease. 
iv. Production of Useful Chemicals: By this technique, many useful chemicals are obtained such as shikonin (a dye used in silk and in the treatment of injuries caused by burning. 

Disadvantages of Tissue Culture 
There are also some disadvantages of tissue culture where are as follows 
i. Production of Sterile Plant: The plant produced by this technique may be genetically sterile, do not reproduce by sexual method. 
ii. Variation in Chromosome: This technique may cause change in the structure and number of chromosome. 

ii. Protoplast Fusion Technique 
Another technique known as protoplast fusion technique is developed to produce new varieties of plants. 
Procedure 
In this technique, outer cell wall is removed around the protoplast. After protoplast of one or more cells are fused together, then their protoplast are for culture. These protoplast produce a wall around them, then they are change into new plant. Protoplast of either same or different species may used for this technique.
Example 
In potato and wild night shade plant this technique is used. 


2. Sexual Reproduction

The type of reproduction in which fusion of gametes (sperm and ova) take place and two parents (male and female) are involved is termed as Sexual Reproduction. 

Sexual Reproduction in Plant 
In plants sexual reproduction takes place by three methods. 
i. Isogamy 
ii. Oogamy 
iii. Heterogamy 

i. Isogamy 
The simplest type of sexual reproduction in which two morphologically similar gametes take part in fertilization to produced zygospore which then develop into new plant is called Isogamy. 
It is also known as conjugation which means marriages of equals. 
Example 
This process occurs in algae and lower plants. 

ii. Oogamy 
The type of sexual reproduction in which a flagellated motile sperm fertilizes with non motile egg to produced a diploid zygote which then develop into new individual is called Oogamy. 
Example 
Some species of algae undergoes Oogamy. 

iii. Heterogamy 
The type of sexual reproduction in which two different structure gamets fused i.e. non flagellated large size female gamete fuses with small size flagellated male gamete to produced zygote which then develop into new plant is called Heterogamy. 
It is also known as anisogamy. 
Example 
In higher plants such as bryophyte, heterogamy is present. 


Germination 

The process in which dormant or sleeping embryo awakes up renews its life and develops into a seeding is called as Germination. 
OR 
The breaking of dormancy of seed to produce seedling is called Germination. 


Kinds of Germination

Seed can germinate into three ways i.e. 
1. Epigeal Germination 
2. Hypogeal Germination 
3. Viviparous Germination 

1. Epigeal Germination 
Epi => above, geo => earth 
The kind of germination in which cotyledons came above the soil due to rapid growth of hypocotyl is called Epigeal Germination. 
Example 
Caster oil seed, tomato, cotton etc. 

2. Hypogeal Germination 
Hypo => below, geo => earth 
The kind of germination in which cotyledons remain under the soil due to rapid growth of epicotyl is called Hypogeal Germination. 
Example 
Maize-grain, Pea-gram etc. 

3. Viviparous Germination 
The special of germination in which seed germinates within fruit is called Viviparous Germination. 
Process 
The fruit is still attached to parent plant. Redicle comes out of the fruit which becomes swollen and heavy due to increasing weight the seedling gets detached and falls vertically into the soft mud gets embeded and starts growing. 
Example 
Rhizophora, coconut, date palm etc. 


Seed 

Seed may be defined as 
A ripened ovule or a part of a plant body in which embryo lives in dormant condition is called Seed. 


Structure of Seed

Structure of seed can be divided into two parts 
1. External Structure 
2. Internal Structure 

1. External Structure 
Externally seed consists of following parts 
Seed Coat 
The seed is covered from outside by a coat called Seed Coat. 
The seed coat is formed by integuments. It is made up of two layers. 
Testa 
The outer thicker layer is called Testa. 
Tegmen 
The inner thin layer is called Tegmen. 


Chromosomes as Carrier of Genes

Genes are small bodies found in the chromosome. 
Chromosome are considered as the carrier of genes. 

• The chromosomes can be separately identified visually but the genes are very small units. And so far have not been seen even with the best microscope.

• The chromosome and gene behave as hereditary units but the genes can not be considered outside the chromosome.

• At the time of meiosis, the separation of homologous chromosomes takes place which result in the segregation of gene pairs.

• In the genotype of every individual one member of each pair of genes is contributed by one parent and the other by the other parent.

Chromosomal Theory of Heredity

Introduction 
The chromosomal theory of inheritance was first formulated by the American Biologist "Walter Sutton" in 1902. 


Postulates

The main postulates of this theory are as under 

1. Hereditary Materials 
Reproduction involves the initial union of only two cells, egg and sperm. If Mendel's model is correct then these two gametes must make equal hereditary contributions. Sperm, however contain little cytoplasm, therefore the hereditary material must reside within the nuclei of the gametes. 

2. Segregation of Chromosomes 
Chromosomes segregated during meiosis in a manner similar to that exhibited by the elements of Mendel's model. 

3. Number of Chromosome 
Gametes have one copy of each pair of homologous chromosomes, diploid individuals have two copies. 

4. Independent Assortment 
During meiosis each pair of homologous chromosomes orients on the metaphase plate independent of any other pair. 

Objection 
The objection on chromosomal theory of hereditary is that when there is independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis, the number of factors (genes) is more than the number of chromosomes. This is considered as a fatal objection about Sutton's theory. 


Evidence

The material which transmits the parental characters into the coming generation is called Hereditary Material. 


Fredrick Griffith's Experiment 

Introduction 
Fred Griffith in 1928 provided the evidence of hereditary material in bacteria. 

Experimental Material 
He was working on strains of steptococcus pneumoniae, which occurs in two distinct different forms. 

R-Type 
Rough surfaced, non-capsulated bacteria, without the capability of producing pneumonia. 
i.e. non-virulent 

S-Type 
Smooth surfaced, capsulated bacteria, with the capability of producing pneumonia i.e. virulent. 


Steps of Experiment

• He observed that when the injected R-type bacteria in the mice, there was no ill effect.

• When he injected the S-type, they proved to be fatal.

• He also observed, when he injected both the bacteria separately after killing them by heating under high temperature, the mice did not develop the disease.

• He also observed that, when the injected the living R-type with heat-killed S-type, there was a high morality among the mice.

Conclusion

Fred Griffith concluded that the R-type bacteria gained genetic property of S-type inactive bacteria when they kept together, so R-type bacteria converted into virulent S-type by the activity of DNA. Hence by this experiment, it can be proved that DNA is a genetic material. 


A Very, Macleod and McCarty's Experiment

Introduction 
In 1944, after a decade of research, Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty and Colin Macleod discovered that the transforming agent had to be DNA. 

Experiment 
They performed various experiments and found out that the only substance, which carried the transforming capability, was DNA because if the enzyme deoxyriba-nuclease was added to the bacteria, the transforming capability was lot. 


Hershey and Chase's Experiment

Introduction 
In 1952, Hershey and chase performed experiment to proof that DNA is a hereditary material. 

Experience at Material 
Hershey and chase labeled protein coat and DNA of Bacteriophage separately. Protein coat labeled with radioactive sulphur and DNA with radioactive phosphorus. These two viruses use to attack bacterial cells. 


Steps Experiment

• Hershey and chase observed that if cultures of bacteriophage are labeled with radioactive phosphorus [P32 labeling DNA] or with sulphur [S35 for labeling protein coat].

• bacteriophage is ruptured, the DNA is released and treated with deoxyribsonucleas, the DNA breaks up into fragments in the solution.

• The empty protein coats of the ruptured membrane appear as coats all the P32 or S35 were made to inject bacteria and multiply by the help of special technique, all the S35 labeled protein were removed.

• The new phage formed contained only P32 indicating the presence of DNA molecule.

Conclusion

The conclusion appears similar to the transforming principle in bacteria, showing that DNA is the genetic material in phage, transmitted from one generation to the next. 


Watson and Crick's Model of DNA 

Introduction 
James Watson and Francis crick, in 1953 proposed structure of the DNA molecule. 


Structure of DNA

Watson and Crick suggested a ladder like organization of DNA. 
1. Double Helix 
Each molecule of DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains which twisted around each other and form a double helix. 

2. Backbone of DNA 
The uprights of the ladder are made up of sugar and phosphate parts of nucleotide and the rungs are made up of a paired nitrogenous bases. 

3. Pairing of Bases 
The pairs are always as follows 

• Adenine always pairs with thymine and cytosine with Guanine.

• The two polynucleotide chains are complimentary to each other and held together by hydrogen bonds.

Hydrogen Bonding

There are two hydrogen bonds between Adenine and Thymine (A=T) and three between Cytosine and Guanine (C≡G). 

Distance 

• Both polynucleotide strands remain separated by 20 Aº distance.

• The coiling of double helix is right handed and complete turn occurs after 34 Aº. In each turn 10 nucleotide pairs are present, therefore the distance between two pairs is about 3.4 Aº.

Genes - The Unit of Hereditary Information 

Introduction 
Archibald Garrod discovered in 1902, that certain diseases were more prevalent among some families and were inherited as a recessive Mendelian trait. 

Alkaptonuria 
Alkaptonuria is a disease in which the urine contained a substance called "Alkapton" now known as "Homogentisic acid" which was immediately oxidizes to black when exposed to the air. 

Causes 

• He suggested that this disease occurred due to absence of an enzyme, which could break the "Alkapton" down to other products so it would not build up in the urine.

• He proposed that the condition was "An inborn error of metabolism" which is occurring due to changes in the hereditary information, which must have occurred in one of the ancestors of the affected families.

Conclusion

He concluded that the inherited disorders might reflect enzyme deficiencies. 


Genome 

Definition 
The total genomic constitution of an individual is known as Genome. 
Example 
In a bacterial cell, a single circular chromosome along with plasmid is genome of bacteria, while in a human being all twenty two pairs of autosome along with a pair of sex-chromosomes constitute genome. 


Replication of DNA 

Definition 
The mechanism in which DNA prepares its copies is called DNA replication. 
OR 
When the formation of new DNA molecule takes place in the cells without any change, it is known as Replication of DNA. 


Semi Conservative Replication 

Definition 
The type of replication in which new daughter double helical duplex contain one stand old and another newly synthesized is called Semi Conservative Replication. 


The Meselson Stahl Experiment 

Introduction 
Mathew meselson and Frank Stahl performed experiments to test the semi-conservative method of DNA replication. 

Experiment 

• They grew bacteria in a medium containing Nitrogen-15 (N15), a heavy isotope of the nitrogen.

• The DNA after several generations became denser than normal because the entire bacterial DNA now contained Nitrogen-15 (N15).

• They then transferred the bacteria into a new medium containing lighter isotope Nitrogen 14 (N14) and analyzed the cultures for changes in the DNA.

• At first DNA, which the bacteria synthesized, was all heavy.

• After one round the density of the DNA fell exactly to the value one half between the all heavy isotope DNA and all light isotope DNA.

Result 
This showed that after one round of replication, each of the daughter DNA duplex contained one strand of heavy isotope, after two rounds half contained none of the heavy isotope strand to form light duplex and half contained one of the heavy strand isotope. 
It was now confirmed that the semi conservative method of the replication of DNA replication was true. 


One Gene One Enzyme Hypothesis 

Introduction 
George Beadle and Coworker Edward L. Tatum proved that the information coded within the DNA of a chromosome, is used to specify particular enzymes. 


Method of Study

• Beadle and Tatum created Mandelian mutation in the chromosomes of the fungus called Neurospora by the use of the x-rays.

• They studied the effect of the mutations caused by them and suggested "One Gene One Enzyme Hypothesis".

Choice of Material

• They choose the bread mold, neurospora crassa as an experimental organism. It had a short life cycle and was easily grown on a defined medium, containing known substances, such as glucose and NaCl.

• The nutrition of Neurospora could be studied by its ability to metabolize sugars and other chemicals the scientist could add or delete from the mixture of the medium.

Production of Mutations

• They induced mutations in Neurospora spores by using x-rays.

• The mutated spores were placed on complete growth media enriched with all necessary metabolites, so keeping the strains alive because the strains were deficient in producing certain compounds necessary for fungus growth due to damaged DNA by earlier irradiation, hence called Mutants.

Identification of Mutant Strains

• To test the mutations, they grew the mutated strains on the animal media containing sugar, ammonia, salt, a few vitamins and water.

• A strain that had lost the ability to make a necessary metabolite, failed to grow on such media.

• Using this approach, they succeeded in identifying and isolating the different mutants.

Identification of Specific Mutations

• To determine the specific nature of each mutation, they added various chemicals to minimize media, to make the strains grow.

• Using this technique, they were able to pinpoint the biochemical problem and thus the genetic deficiency of the mutants.

• Many of the mutants were unable to synthesize a single amino acid or a specific vitamin.

• If a spore lacked the ability to synthesize a particular amino acid, such as Arginine, it only grew if the Arginine was added in the growth medium. Such mutants were called as arg mutants.

• Chromosome mapping studies on the organism facilitated their work and they mapped three areas clusters of mutant Arginine genes.

• For each enzyme in the arginine biosynthetic pathway, they were able to isolate a mutant strain with a defective form of that enzyme and mutation always proved to be located at one of a few specific chromosomal sites, different for each enzyme.

Conclusion

They concluded that genes produced effects by specifying the structure of enzymes and that each gene encodes the structure of a single enzyme. This was called "One Gene One Enzyme Hypothesis". 


RNA 

Definition 
The single stranded helical polynucleotide contain ribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine is called RNA. 

Location 
RNA is formed in the nucleus (in nucleolus 10%) as well as in the cytoplasm (90%). 


Types of RNA

There are three types of RNA. 

1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) 
The class of RNA found in ribosome is called ribosomal RNA. 
Function 
During polypeptide synthesis it provides the site on the ribosome where the polypeptide is assembled. 

2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) 
A second class of RNA is called transfer RNA is much smaller. Human cell contains more than 40 different kinds of tRNA molecules. 
Functions 
During polypeptide synthesis tRNA molecules transport the amino acid into the ribosome for the synthesis of polypeptide chain.

True and False - 

Zoology 



Friendsmania.net
1. Bat is a flying bird. 
2. Hydra is diploblastic animal. 
3. Archaepteryx is a fossil bird. 
4. Prototheria are egg-laying mammals. 
5. Human heart is four-chambered. 
6. Fishes respire through skin. 
7. Intracellular digestion occurs between the cells. 
8. Frog is a carnivorous animal. 
9. Typhlosol is a dorsal absorptive ridge. 
10. Water vascular system is present only in Echinodermata. 
11. Melatonin is secreted by cretins. 
12. The heart of the crocodile consists of three chambers. 
13. The accumulation of nerves and sensory organs in the head is known as Caphalization. 
14. The Prototherians are pouched mammals. 
@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

15. Ammocoete is the larva of lamprey. 
16. The spicules form the skeleton in sponges. 
17. Plasmodium is an Endo-parasite. 
18. Jelly-fish belongs to the class pieces. 
19. Trypsin digests fats. 
20. Pathology is the study of diseases. 
21. Whale is a fish. 
22. Planaria belongs to the phylum Oplatyhelminthes. 
23. Neuron is the unit of the nervous system. 
24. Throid gland secretes thyrotopins bormone. 
25. Ascaris is found as a parasite in the intestine of man. 
26. Amnion is the protective membrane of the embryo of frog. 
27. Trypanosome is an external parasite. 
28. Arteries carry the blood away from the heart. 
29. Nephridia are respiratory organs. 
30. Flagella are the organs of locomotion. 
31. The inner ear is responsible for maintaing the balance of the body. 
32. The cross section of the spinal cord shows the gray matter lying on the outside. 
33. Pathology is the study of disease. 
34. Gastrozooids are reproductive Zooids of the colony. 
35. Amphioxus belongs to sub-phylum vertebrate. 
36. Retina contains rods and cones. 
37. Larynx is a part of the Digestive system. 
38. Molluscus secrete shells of various types. 
39. Mammals are Warm-blooded animals. 
40. Intracellular digestion takes place between the cells. 
41. Kiwi is a flying bird.

Zoology Fill in the Blanks
1. Salivary amylase digests carbohydrates in __________ medium.
2. The life-cycle of Plasmodium in mosquito discovered by __________.
3. The larva of Balanoglossus (acron worm( is called __________.
4. Legless amphibians are included in class __________.
5. Flame cells are found in __________.
6. Nephridia are the excretory organs of __________.
7. Butterfly exhibits __________ metamorphosis.
8. Euplectella belongs to __________.
9. Termites live in __________ colony.
10. Reptiles, birds and mammals are collectively called __________.
11. In sponges the spongocoel is lined with __________.
12. Cyclops is an example of the phylum __________.
13. In 1880 A.D Lavern discovered a protozoan parasite in the __________ of a malaria patient.
14. A protozoan parasite __________ causes human dysentery.
15. The organs of excretion in insects are __________.
16. There are five pairs of gills in __________ class of fish.
17. Saccutina a parasite of __________.
18. Thyroxine contains __________.
19. The larva of polychaete is called __________.
20. Elephantiasis is caused by __________.
21. The cnidoblasts are present in the phylum __________.
22. Rock mountain spotted fever is transmitted by cetain __________.
23. The end product of carbohydrate digestion is __________.
24. The contractile vacuole performs the function of __________.
25. Scyphistoma is the larval form of __________.
26. The study of the functions of the organs is known as __________.
27. Nearly 200 years ago the mammals evolved from __________
28. __________ is the largest gland.
29. Mantle is the characteristic of the phylum __________.
30. Class __________ has the largest number of species of the whole animal kingdom.
31. Kangaroo belongs to the sub class __________.
32. The locomotory organs of polychaets are __________.
33. Non-nucleated R.B.C are found in blood of __________.
34. The fore-brain consists of Telencephalon and __________.
35. Bat is a flying __________.
36. Phylum __________ and __________ include marine animals.
37. __________ is the unit of excretory organs.
38. Respiration is the process of __________.
39. __________ is an example of Polymorphism.
40. Book lungs are the respiratory organs of __________.
41. In insects the excretion is performed by __________.
42. Class Agnatha is also called __________.
43. Cortisone hormone is seceted by __________ gland.
44. Swim bladder is found in the class __________.
45. The larva of Neries is called __________.
46. Spider belongs to the class __________.
47. The heart of a bird is divided into __________ chambers.
48. Cercaria is the larva of __________.
49. The dendrons carry inpulse towards __________.
50. The outer layer of the wall of the eyeball is known as __________.
51. Flame cells are the organs of __________.
52. Balano glosus is included in the Phylum __________.
53. The meaning of malaria is __________.
54. The study of the internal structure of an organism is called __________.
55. Flame cells are excretory organs of phylum __________.
56. Trypanosome is a blood parasite.
57. The dissimilar teeth in mammals are called __________.
58. The respiratory organs of insects are __________.
59. The skeletal parts of sponges are called __________.
60. Nematocysts are found in the phylum __________.
61. Enzyme pepsin is secreted by the __________ glands.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Botany True and False 2010

1. There are three phases of growth namely Cell division, Cell enlargement and Cell differentiation.
   2. The influence of the duration of daily periods of light and darkness on the flowering is known as phototropism.
   3. Mimosa pudica shows tropic movements.
   4. The water rises up in the plants through xylem vessel.
   5. Monosomic is a condition when there is one chromosome less than the original number (2n-1).
   6. Sex-linked character in man is Night blindness.
   7. A bacterial cell divides by mitosis.
   8. Anthocyanin pigment is present in chloroplast.
   9. Nature has provided the cell with a means of temporary energy storage in the from of ATP.
   10. Protein synthesis takes place in Ribosomes.
   11. Anaerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen.
   12. Haemophilia is a genetic disease.
   13. Gametes are always haploid.
   14. Zygotes are always diploid.
   15. A man having blood group “0” has two antigens.
   16. Haemophilia is sex-linked disease.
   17. Shrinkage of protoplasm due to loss of water from the vacuole is called Plasmolysis.
   18. The raw materials used during photosynthesis are water and carbon dioxide.
   19. Respiration is an anabolic process.
   20. In higher plants growth takes place throughout the body.
   21. Colour blindness is found more in women than in men.
   22. Polyploidy is blood disease.
   23. Turner’s syndrome is found in females only.
   24. Meiosis takes place at the root and stem apexes of the plant.
   25. Transpiration takes place from woody stem also.
   26. Opening and closing of the stomata depends upon the turgidity of the guard cells.
   27. Molecules of solute can pass though a permeable membrane.
   28. The shrinkage of protoplasm takes place during the process of osmosis.
   29. D.N.A is a genetic material.
   30. Hemophilia is comparatively rare in women.
   31. The cross between two individuals differencing in two traits is called Dihybrid cross.
   32. Down Syndrome is a disease called Mongolism.
   33. The nature of Dark Reaction was studied by Black man.
   34. The contrasting characters or alternating forms of the same gene is called Allele.
   35. Absorption of water from the soil takes place through xylem vessels.
   36. During Meiosis the number of chromosomes remains constant.
   37. Photolysis of water takes place during a light reaction.
   38. Cuticle also takes part in transpiration.
   39. Uracil base is present in D.N.A.
   40. Respiration is a katabolic process.
   41. Man is heterogametic
   42. The drier the air, the more will be the rate of transpiration.
   43. The gametes are always diploid.
   44. Anthocyanin pigment is present in chloroplast.
   45. Water moves in a plant even if there is no root pressure.
   46. Transpiration mostly takes place through the roots.
   47. Oxygen is evolved in photosynthesis by the splitting of molecules.
   48. Nullisomic is a condition when there is one chromosome less than the original number.
   49. Proteins are synthesized on the ribosomes.
   50. The reversal in the sequence of genes within the chromosomes is called Inversion.
   51. In moths, birds and some fishes the females are homogamatic and the males are heterogametic.
   
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Botany MCQs Karachi Board BISE Karachi Notes

1. When the plasmolysed cells are again placed in water, there is a recovery to the original condition due to endosmosis of water. This is called __________.
(Plasmolysis, Incipient Plasmolysis, Complete Plasmolysis, Deplasmolysis)

2. Rizobium is found in __________.
(Roots of wheat, Roots of rice, Root-nodules of pea, Deplasmolysis)

3. The oxygen released in photosynthesis comes from __________.
(Carbon dioxide, Carbohydrates, Water, None of above)

4. Cell organella related with respiration is __________.
(Mitochondria, Centriole, Coldgi Body, Nucleus)

5. The end products of glycolysis is __________.
(Citric Acid, Pyruvic Acid, Ethyl alcohol, Glyceraldehyde)

6. Positive geotropism is observed in __________.
(Primary roots, Sucking roots, Aerial roots, None of these)

7. Absorption of water by roots is increased when __________.
(Transpiration rate is less, Salt absorption is increased, Transpiratin rate is incrreased. Photosynthesis rate is increased)

8. In plant cell vacuole contains __________.
(Gases, Vacuum, Dissolved Mineral salts, Water)

9. The union of male and female gametes results in the formation of __________.
(Aplanospore, Meiospore, Zygote, None of these)

10. Enzymes are basically __________.
(Proteins, Vitamins, Fats, Carbohydrates)

11. Semi-permeability is the property of __________.
(Plasma Membrane, Cell wall, Colgi body, Endoplasmic Reticulum)

12. The initial stage of water absorption by root cell is by __________.
(Osmosis, Imbibition, Absorption, Diffusion)

13. Duplication of DNA is called __________.
(Transduction, Transcription, Translation, Replication)
14. Watson and Crick are credited for finding __________.
(DNA is the carrier of genetic information, DNA is a double-stranded helix, RNA is a double-stranded helix, DNA is composed of sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogenous bases)

15. __________ is the unit of inheritance.
(Phenotype, Genotype, Gene, None of these)

16. __________ organalle is related with genetic engineering.
(Plastids, Plasmids, Mutations, Hybrid Vigour)

17. The pollen tube which moves through the style towards ovary is an example of __________.
(Phototropism, Thigmotropism, Hydrotropism, None of these)

18. Cytokinins promote __________.
(Cell division, Apical growth, Tallness, Dwarfness)

19. The number of chromosomes in humans is __________.
(56, 46, 36)

20. The tendency of genes to remain together is called __________.
(Linkage, Crossing over, Gena mutation)

21. Cross fertilization of phenotypically dominant individual with a homozygous recessive individual is __________.
(Dihybrid cross, Munohybrid Cross, Test Cross)

22. Cytokinesis is the division of __________.
(Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Vacuole)

23. Inheritance of acquired characters was suggested by __________.
(Wallace, Aristotle, Lamarck)

24. Translocation of organic food substances takes place through __________.
(Xylem, Phloem, Endodermis)

25. Absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil takes place through __________.
(Older roots, Younger roots, Both of them)

26. Respiration in plants takes place during __________.
(Day time only, Night time only, Day and night both)

27. Process of transpiration is effected by __________.
(Light only, temperature only, both of these)

28. Mitosis takes place in __________.
(Somatic Cell, Sickle cell, Zylem Cell)

29. Transpiration is necessary for __________.
(Movement of Curvature, Synthesis of food material, Conduction of Water)

30. Munch Hypothesis was proposed to explain __________.
(Translocation, Ascent of Sap, Transpiration)

31. Human male set of chromosomes is __________.
(44 + xy, 44 + xx, 44 + 00)

32. The first stable compound formed during photosynthesis is __________.
(ATP, 3PGA, Pyruvic Acid)

33. During Meiosis crossing over takes place at __________.
(Leptotene, Diplotene, Diakenesis)

34. Paleontology evidences are considered as evidence of __________.
(Vestiges, Fossils, Embryo)

35. The genotype of Hybrid is __________.
(T, Tt, tt)

36. The blood group of a man with neither antigens is __________.
(‘O’ Group, ‘A’ Group, ‘AB’ Group)

37. The changes in chromosomes are called __________.
(Linkage, Crossing over, Chromosomal aberration)

38. The growth in plants can be measured by __________.
(Photometer, Respirometer, Auxanometer)

39. Oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis from __________.
(Water, Carbon dioxide, Carbohydrate)

40. The two chromatics of each chromosome are held together at __________.
(Centromere, Centrosome, Chiasma)

41. The sex-linked character in man is __________.
(Hieght, Colour-blindness, Colour of skin)

42. A bacterial cell divides by __________.
(Mitosis, Amitosis, Meiosis)

43. Gene pool is the sum total of __________.
(Genes, Gene frequency, Gene in population)

44. Karyokinesis is the division of __________.
(Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Vacuole)

45. The cell wall is __________.
(Permeable, Impermeable, Semipermeable)

46. The opening and closing of stomata are controlled by __________.
(Stomatal cells, Guard cells, Zylem Cells)

47. The physical process in which water is sucked up by a certain dry or semi-dry material is __________.
(Diffusion, Imbibition, Osmosis, Plasmolysis)

48. Inheritance and variation in living things is explained by __________.
(Ecology, Genetics, Taxonomy, Anatomy)

49. The relative time of day and night to which plant is exposed is __________.
(Photophosphorylation, Phototaxis, Photoperiodism, Phototropism)

50. In meiosis, the snapsis of homologous chromosomes takes place at this sub stage __________.
(Pachytene, Zygotene, Leptotene, Diplotene)

51. The human blood genetic disease in which the red blood cells become of abnormal shape is called __________.
(Anemia, Pneumonia, Insomnia, Sickle-cell anemia)

 

Homeostatis 
Definition
Home means same and statis means state. So the regulatory mechanism which maintained the internal environment of a organism is called homeostatis. 

Important Aspects of Homeostatis
There are three important aspects of homeostatis. 

• Osmoregulation

• Thermoregulation

• Excretion

Feed Back System
The check and balance system in a body is called feed back system. In a feed back system three organs are involved. 

1. Receptor 
The organ which receive any change in the internal environment of the body are called Receptor. 
2. Effector 
The central nervous system which send the message to a particular organ are called effector. Take part in particular action. 
3. Central Nervous System 
The receptor transfer message to a central nervous system such as brain. 

Types of Feed Back System
There are two type of feed back system. 

• Positive Feed Back System

• Negative Feed Back System

1. Positive Feed Back System 
When there is a change in the internal environment and it is further increase by the process are called positive feed back system. 
2. Negative Feed Back System 
When there is a change in the internal environment and it is further decreased by the process called negative feed back system. 

Osmoregulation
Definition
The regulatory mechanism which maintain the balance between water and solute context of a cell is called osmoregulation. 

Osmoregulation in Plant
Due to the availability of water there are four groups of plant. 

• Hydrophyte

• Halophyte

• Xerophyte

• Mesophyte

Hydrophyte 
The group of plant which is grow in fresh water are called hydrophyte. 
Characteristic of Hydrophyte 

• The plant do not have layer of cuticle.

• The leave have stomata in the upper surface with take part in transpiration.

• The root are either absent or poorly developed.

Example 
Hydrilla, Lotus, Lily plant 

Halophytes 
The group of plant which is grow in marshy soil or salty soil are called halophyte. 
Characteristic of Halophyte 

• These plant absorb water from such a soil, which is higher salt concentration and low water potential.

• Halophyte actively absorption salt into their roots.

• In the leaves of plants salt glands are present which helps in the removal of salt and water from the body.

• Some halophytes absorb humidity by leave.

Example 
Glass wort, Cord grass 

Mesophyte 
The group of plant which is grow in well watered soil are called mesophyte. 
Characteristics of Mesophyte 

• Their roots are well developed.

• Their body is covered by a layer called cuticle.

• They contain stomata for evaporation of extra water.

• Some mesophyte excrete out water in the form of drop this process is called guttation.

Xerophyte 
The group of plant which is grow in dry places such as desert are called Xerophyte. 
Characteristic of Xerophyte 

• Some plants do not face dry consition and produce seed are called ephemeral plant. During raining season seeds germinate.

• Their root are well develop which go deep into the soil to absorb water.

• Some plant have horizontal root on the surface to absorb rain water rapidly.

• Some plant leaves are modified into spine to prevent transpiration.

• Stem and leave covered by cuticle.

• Some plant store water in cell (succulent)

Example 
Cacuts, Euphorbia. 
@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

Excretion
Definition
The removal of harmful substance produce in the metabolic process from the body is called Excretion. 

Excretion in Plant
In plant rate of catabolic process is very slow and waste product are produce in less amount. They are used again in their anabolic process. 

Waste Substance of Plant
The substance which are produce in excess amount are 
Water

• CO2 and O2

• Ions

Removal of Water
Extra water is removed from the body of plant by two methods. 

Transpiration 
The extra amount of water removed in the form of vapor through stomata is called transpiration. 
Guttation 
When water is removed from plant in the form of drop this process is called Guttation. Guttation occur special opening called hydathods. Guttation take place in those plant which grow in tropical rain forest. 

Release of Oxygen and Carbondioxide

• In day time plant used CO2 for photosynthesis process and released O2.

• In night time plant released CO2 and inhale O2 gas.

Ions
Excess amount of ion are deposit into dead cell of plant body such as bark. 

Thermoregulation
The maintained the temperature of the body with in a range is called thermoregulation. 

Thermoregulation in Plant
The normal range of temperature in plant is 10oC to 35oC. The adaption of plant to low and high temperature are as follows. 

Low Temperature

• At low temperature the nature of plasma membrane is changed and produce crystalline structure due to which transport of solute is slow.

• To control this condition plant cell produce unsaturated.

• At freezing point ice crystal are formed in the cell. But the plant of cold region change the composition of solute of cell so ice crystal are not formed in cytoplasm they form in cell wall. This condition is known as freezing tolerance.

High Temperature
High temperature has more harmful than low temperature for plant. 

• Due to high temperature all enzyme are denature and metabolic process stop. So plant increase rate of transpiration and cool the body.

• At above 40oC plant produce heat shock protein. They protect the enzyme from destroying.

• In some plant shiny cuticle is present which protest them from high temperature.

• In some plant leaves are reduce in size.

Osmoregulation In Animal
Osmoregulation in Terrestial Animal 
In land animals excretion of water take place through body surface so they have develop number of strategies to maintain Osmoregulation. 
Water Proof External Covering Epidemics present in reptile, mammal cuticle present in insect which prevent the water loss from their body. 
Storage and Excretion of Solid Wastes In birds, reptile and insect store nitrogenous waste uric acid. Uric acid insoluble in water and help to reabsorption of water in cloeca. Uric acid excreted the body in the form of paste and crystal. 
Use of Metabolic Water 
Some mammal fat is converted into simple compound and during this process water is produce which is reused in the body. Camel, Kangroo used metabolic water. 
Storage of Harmful Waste In mammal urea in kidney which is helps in reabsorption of water. 

Osmoregulation in Aquatic Animal 
Osmoregulation in fresh water animal is maintained by two methods. 
1. By Contractile Vacuole 
2. By producing dilute urine 

1. By Contractile Vacuole 
Fresh water unicellular organism have contractile vacuoles. Water with dissolved CO2 and uric acid is collected from the endoplasm into the contractile vacuole, which increase in size up to a maximum and burst released the extra substance in environment. In Amoeba and Paramicium the amount of water and other substance remain in balanced by contractile vacuole. 
2. By Producing Dilute Urine 
Fresh water fishes have hypertonic body fluid as compare to surrounding water. Fisher released extra amount of water in the form of dilute urine and absorb some essential ion from outside to maintain the salt and water content in the body. 

Osmoregulation in Marine Animal 
Marine water fishes have hypotonic body fluid than surrounding because sea water have high concentration of salt so these fishes drink water continuously and the salt excreted out along with concentrated urine. They also excrete salt through gills. 

Excretion in Animal
In animal removal of nitrogenous waste from the body is very essential. Animal have particular organ to excrete out nitrogenous waste. 
Waste Substance of Animal 
Animal produce different type of waste substance such as 
1. Ammonia 
2. Urea 
3. Uric Acid 
4. Creatinine 
5. Hypozenthine 

1. Ammonia 

• It is a small molecule of gas. Its formula is NH3.

• It is highly soluble in water.

• It is very toxic compound

• It is dissolved in water and removes by simple diffusion method through skin or by urine.

• It is excretory substance of aquatic animal e.g. fishes.

2. Urea 

• Urea is less soluble in water.

• Its formula is CO(NH2).

• Urea is very less toxic substance because its 1,00,000 time less toxic then NH3.

• Urea is produce as a result of metabolism in the liver from ammonia.

NH3 + CO2 ------> Citruline ------> Aginine ------> Urea 

• This process required energy.

• Urea is the excretory product of mostly land animal like mammals.

3. Uric Acid 
Its formula is C5O3N4H4.

• It is not soluble in water.

• Uric Acid is less toxic than urea.

• Uric Acid released from the body in paste like substance or urete crystal.

• Urid Acid is the excretory product of insect, birds and reptile.

Excretion in Hydra
(Exetory Substance (NH3)) 
Hydra is a water living animal. In this body the excretory products are produced in the form of NH3. It is excreted out the gastrovascular cavity and then removed from the body along with water. 
friendsmania.net

Excretion in Planaria
(Exetory Organs) 
In planaria nitrogenous waste excrete out through skin and special excretory organ called flame call or protonephridia. 

Structure of Excretory System and Functions
In the body of planaria there is a system of branch tube like bodies. There are two longitudinal excretory trunks one on either side of the body. 

Nephredipores 
They open to the out side by small pore called nephredipores. 
Flame Cell 
Internally these excretory trunk divide and redivide into number of small branches at the end of the branch special cell are present are called flame cell. The flame cells are club-shaped hollow cells. In their internal cavity many cilia are attached which perform movement just like flame of candle. 

Functions
All the waste product of main branches absorb by flame cell because the movement of cilia of flame cell. When the excretory product come into the longitudinal excretory system they are removed out of the body through the nephrediopore. 

Excretory Organs 
The excretory system of earthworm consist of small, coiled tubes called Metanephredia. It is present in each segment. 

Structure of Nephredium 
Each Nephredium consist of three part. 

1. Nephrostome 
It is a rounded, ciliated funnel with the opening. 
2. Bladder 
Main body of nephridum consist of coiled tubular part and wide part called bladder. 
3. Nephridiopore 
The bladder opens outside by a small pore on the skin are called nephridiopore. 

Excretion 
As fluid moves along the tubule, epithelium reabsorbs the salt from lumen and send to blood vessels surrounding the nephridium. The left over appears as urine containing nitrogenous waste. 

Excretion in Cockroach
Excretory Organs 
Cockroach have special tube like excretory structure are called "Malphighian Tubules". It is present between the mid gut and hind gut. It is embedded in the blood. 

Excretion 
Malphighian tubules absorb all nitrogenous waste from blood and pour them into illium. The latter part of tubules reabsorbs important substance. The uric acid when come into rectum, it also reabsorbs water and salt, so uric became almost dry then it is excreted out of the body. 

Liver
Liver is the large raddish brown glandular organ which is central station of metabolism and consequently the body is central metabolism clearing house. 

Location
Liver located in the abdomen just below the diaphragm. 

Functions of Liver
Liver is the main homeostatis organ which perform several function. 

1. Metabolism of CHO and LIPIDS 

• Liver is the center of metabolism. Is take part in metabolism of carbohydrate and lipid. It regulates the amount of glucose into the blood. Excess glucose is converted into glycogen, which is reserve food. It amount of glucose is decrease in the blood glycogen is broken into glucose. Glycogen is reduce than liver convert amino acid into glucose.

• Liver also help in oxidation of lipid. It is converted blood lipid into simple fat which is stored in the body.

2. Deamination and Urea Formation 
Excess of protein can not be store in body. Protein are change into amino acid. Amine group is removed from the amino acid this process is called deamination of form NH3. Amonia combine with CO2 and convert into urea by a cycle called ornithine cycle. 

3. Production of Bile 
Liver produce a secretion called Bile. It is yellowish green alkaline substance. Bile contain bile pigment biliverdin, bilirubin, salt such as sodium-glycocholate, Na-taurocholate, Cholesterol, Phospholipid and mucous. 
Functions of Bile 

• Bile neutralizes the acidic food

• It kills the germs

• It takes part in the emulsification of fat.

4. Detoxification 
Liver convert toxic substance into non toxic substance this process are called detoxification. 
For example a compound hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is a harmful compound. The liver secrete on enzyme catalase which convert H2O2 into H2 and O2 and became non poisonous substance. 

5. Formation of Cholesterol 
Liver also forms cholesterol which is necessary for the body. Its extra amount is always excreted along with water. 

5. Formation of Cholesterol 
Liver also forms cholesterol which is necessary for the body. Its extra amount is always excreted along with water. 

6. Thermoregulation 
Liver helps in regulation of body temperature by continue supply of blood and metabolic process. 

7. Storage of Vitamins 
Liver stores vitamins such as A1B and D.

Urinary System in Human Being
Urinary system of man consist of 

Kidney 
Kidneys are pair of dark red bean shaped structures which are attached to the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity. 

• Kidney are covered by a membrane are called peritoneum.

Ureter 
Urine leaves the kidney through a pair of duct called Ureter. 

Bladder 
The ureters of both kidney drain into pear shaped thin walled structure are called bladder. 

Urethra 
Urine leaves the body during urination from the bladder through a tube called Urethra. 

Sphincter 
Sphincter muscles near the junction of the urethra and bladder control the urine in bladder. 
@import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css";

Kidney
Kidney are a pair of dark red bean shaped structures which are attached to the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity. 

Structure of Kidney
Internally kidney consist of two part 
1. Cortex is the outer and darker region. 
2. Medulla is the inner and lighter region in the kidney. It contain many cone like structure are called pyramids. 

Nephron
The basic structural and functional unit of kidney are called Nephron. 
OR 
Kidney consist of million of microtubules are called Nephron. 

Structure of Nephron
Each nephron is sub-divided into 
1. Renal Corpuscle 
2. Renal Tubule 

1. Renal Corpuscle 
Each renal corpuscle is divides into two 
i. Bowman's Capsule 
ii. Glomerulus 

i. Bowman's Capsule 
In each nephron inner end forms a cup-shaped swelling called Bowman's capsule. 
ii. Glomerulus 
Each bowman's capsule have a ball of capillaries called glomerulus. Glumerulus circulates blood through capsule as it arrives through Aferent Arteriole. Blood carried away from the capsule by a small vessel called Efferent Arteriole. The blood vessel sub divide again into another network of capillaries called Peritubular Capillaries. 

2. Renal Tubule 
Bowman capsule continuous as extensively tubular system. 
i. Proximal Convoluted tubule 
ii. Loop of Henle 
iii. Distal convoluted tubule 
iv. Common collecting duct 

i. Proximal Convoluted Tubule 
Bowman capsule gives out a coiled tubule called Proximal Convoluted Tubule. 
ii. Loop of Henle 
The proximal convoluted opens into a U-Shaped structure called loop of Henle. Loop of Henle consist of descending and ascending limbs. 
iii. Distal Convoluted Tubule 
The ascending limb of loop of Henle opens into another convoluted tubule called Distal Convoluted Tubule. 
iv. Collecting Tubules 
Distal tubule empties into collecting tubules which open into pelvis. 


Functions of Kidney

Urine formation take place in these following steps: 
1. Ultra Filtration 
2. Selective Reabsorption 
3. Tubular Secretion 
4. Counter Current Exchange 

2. Selective Reabsorption 
All the important constituent of the glomerular filtrate are reabsorbed when filtrate pass in tubular system. 

• Prominal convoluted tubule reabsorb salt amino acid, glucose and water.

• Descending limb of loop of Henle reabsorb Na and Cl inter in the interstial fluid. Na and Cl reabsorbed by active transport. Water is not reabsorb.

• Distal convoluted tubule have hypotonic solution due to high concentration of water. In this part by the action of hormones concentration of various salt is adjust.

3. Tubular Secretion 
Tubular section is also very important process of excretion. The tubular epithelium also secrete substances into teh lumen this secretion is very selective and mainly of hydrogen into balance pH value of the filtrate passing through the tubule. 

4. Counter Current Exchange 
The exchange of solute and water in the medulla of kidney is called counter current exchange. There are two counter exchanges: 
i. Counter Current Multiplier 
ii. Counter Current of Vasa Recta 

i. Counter Current Multiplier 
When the filtrate passes through the descending limb of loop of Henle water is reabsorbe due to this process the filtrate became hypertonic. 
ii. Counter Current of Vasa Recta 
The blood vessels which run parallel to the loop of Henle are called Vasa recta. Through these blood vessels only about 10% of blood of kidney passes very slowly. This blood supplies oxygen and nourishment to the cell of medulla and carries away the reabsorb water from the filtrate. The system is regulate and maintained properly. 

Reabsorption in the Nephron
Types of Nephron
There are two type of nephron 
1. Cortical Nephron 
2. Juxtamedullary Nephron 

1. Cortical Nephron 
The nephron which have small length of loop of Henle and only present in cortex region of kidney are called Cortical Nephron. 
2. Juxtamedullary Nephron 
These nephron have long loop medullar of kidney reabsorb more water are called juxtamedullary nephron. 

Effect of Hormones on the Working of kidney
Certain hormones control the working of kidney. 
1. Andiurelic Hormones (ADH) 
2. Aldosteron Hormones (AH) 
3. Parathormon Hormone (PTH) 

1. Antidiurelic Hormones 
Pituitary gland secrete ADH. It is also called vasopressin. 
Functions 
Hormones helps in reabsorption of water. Hormone is produce at the time of dehydration. It causes shortage of water in the body due to rapid loss of water. The osmotic pressure of blob increases. This hormone helps to balance the amount of water. 

2. Aldosteron Hormones 
Outer part of adrenal cortex secreted aldosteron harmine. 
Functions 
It control the concentration of Na+ in the bosy fluid. It increase the reabsorption of sodium ion in nephrone. 
3. Parathormon Hormones 
Parathyroid gland secrete parathormone. 

Kidney Problem
Kidney is not perform properly due to different reason are called Kidney problem or Kidney disease. 
There are many problems of kidney 
1. Kidney Stone 
2. Renal Failure 

1. Kidney Stone 
Stone solid materials are found in the kidney called Kidney Stone. 
Causes 
Kidney stones are caused by metabolic disease. 
70% of kidney stone are formed due to calcium oxalate and phosphate oxalate. Oxalate are produced in the metabolic process and added in the urine and deposit in kidney change into stones. Oxalates are present in green vegetables and tomatoes therefore may be the source of oxalate stone. 
Infective Stone 
20% stone are called as infective stone. Infective stone consist of combination of calcium, magnesium and ammonium phosphate. 
Uric Acid Stone 
5% stone are formed in uric acid. 

Cure 
Lithotripsy 
The lithotripsy is used for non surgical removal of kidney stone. It is a technique used to break up stones that form in the kidney, ureter or gall bladder. 
Method 
There are several way to do it although the most common is shock wave lithotripsy or ultrasonic lithotripsy. High concentration X-Ray or ultrasound are directed from a machine outside the body to the stone inside. The shock waves break the stone in tiny pieces or into sand which are passed out of the body in urine. 

Renal Failure 
Sometimes the working of kidney is badly damaged due to certain reason or infection. They are not able to filter the harmful nitrogenous substance it is called renal failure. In such condition the harmful substance remain in blood. 
Symptoms 
Nausea

• Vomiting

• Loss of appetite

• Weakness

• Difficulty in breathing

In severe condition patient may suffer by pneumonia high blood pressure coma and ultimately death. 


Treatment of Kidney Failure

Dialysis 
A technique to remove nitrogenous wastes particularly the urea from the blood of the patient is called Dialysis. 
Type of Dialysis 
There are two types of dialysis 
1. Haemodialysis 
2. Peritoneal Dialysis 

1. Haemodialysis 
Haemodialysis means "Cleaning the blood". In this procedure blood is circulated through a machine which contains a dialyzer also called on artificial kidney. 
Dialyzer has two spaces separated by thin membrance and dialysis fluid on the other. The waste and excess water pass from the blood through the membrane into the dialysis fluid. Dialysis take place 6 to 10 hours and 3 time in a week. 

2. Peritoneal Dialysis 
Abdomen has a peritoneal, lined by a thin epithelium called peritoneum. Peritoneal cavity is filled with dialysis fluid that enters the body through a catheter. Excess water and wastes pass through the peritoneum into the dialysis fluid. This process is repeated several times in a day. 

Kidney Transplant 
Dialysis may be used as temporary measure. In high degree renal failure also called as Uremia or end stage renal disease, the dialysis is done endlessly thus the surgical transplantation of matching donor kidney is only the option left as the permanent treatment. 

Thermoregulation in Animal
Temperature Classification of Animal

According to the body temperature animals are divides into two group. 
1. Poikilotherms (Cold Blooded) 
2. Homeotherms (Warm Blooded) 

1. Poikilotherms 
Animal cannot maintain their body temperature and it can be changed accordingto the climate are called Poikilotherms. 
Example 
Amphibians, Reptile, Fishes. 

2. Homeotherms 
Animal can maintain their body temperature. It does not changed according to their environment are called Homeotherm. 
Example 
Birds, Mammals 
Many poikilotherm can maintain their body temperature and homeotherm do not maintain their body temperature always. So there terms are changed. 


Modern Classification of Animal

The modern classification of animal according to the body temperature. 
1. Ectothermic 
2. Endothermic 
3. Heterothermic 

1. Ectothermic 
Ecto mean outside thermic mean heat so those animal obtained heat energy from their environment are called Ecotothermic. 
Example 
Invertibrate, Fish, Amphibian and Reptile. 

2. Endothermic 
Endo mean inside thermic mean heat so those animals use internal energy which is produced during their metabolism. 
Example 
Mammalia, Birds and Some Fishes. 

3. Heterothermic 
Those animals are able to maintain their body temperature with certain variation, so their body temperature can be changed upto certain limits are called Heterothermic. 
Example 
Bat, Humming birds. 


Method of Thermoregulation in Animals

In animal thermoregulation occurs by two ways. 
1. Behavioral Regulation 
2. Physiological Regulation 

1. Behavioral Regulation 
When temperature is maintained by the activity of animal body, it is called behavior regulation, such as animals change their position to increase or decrease the temperature. 
2. Physiological Regulation 
When temperature of the body is maintained by inter-physiological process it is called physiological regulation, such as change in blood circulation etc. 


Thermoregulation in Cold Temperature

In cold temperature animal regulate their body temperature by two methods. 
1. Physiological Process 
2. Behavioral Process 

1. Physiological Regulation 
This is the internal process of the body to maintain body temperature. It take place by two way 
i. Non-shivering thermogenesis 
ii. Shivering thermogenesis 

i. Non-Shivering Thermogenesis 
Hormones trigger the heat production as do thyroid hormones are called Non-shivering thermogenesis. 
Mechanism 
In this mechanism heat is produce by three methods. 

• Erection of hairs

• Reduction of blood flow toward skin

• Sub cutaneous fat accumulation

Erection of Hairs 
In cold season the hair become in erect position. In furry animals air is trapped between the space of hairs and loss of body heat is stopped. 
Reduction in Blood Flow toward Skin 
In cold season the blood vessels of skin are reduced. It is called Vasoconstriction. Due to this process blood flow towards skin become slow and loss of heat through skin is reduced. 
Sub Cutaneous Fat Accumulation 
In mammals below skin fat is deposited in adipose cell. It prevent the loss of body heat. It is common in aquatic animals such as Seal, Whale. 

ii. Shivering Thermogenesis 
The rate of heat production is increased y increased muscle contraction by movement or shivering so called as shivering thermogenesis. 
Mechanism 
In very cold weather shivering occur in the muscles of the body. It produce heat Rate of Metabolism become faster. In this mechanism hormones are involved one hormone adrenaline is produce by adrenal gland. It increases the supply of glucose in blood so respiration become fast and energy is produce. 
Thyroid gland also secreted thyroxin hormone in blood. This hormone also increased respiration to produce heat. 

2. Behavioral Process 
In this mechanism the animals produce heat by their body activities. 
Movement toward Hot Place 
Animals move toward hot places during cold season. 
Gathering of Animals 
The animals come close to each other, so energy is produced. 
Use of Warm Cloths 
Man used warm clothes for protection and to get heat. 


Thermoregulation in Hot Temperature

In hot season the animal produce less heat and also released heat from their body. It take place by two method. 
1. Physiological Mechanism 
2. Behavioral Mechanism 

1. Physiological Mechanism 
This process take place by following method. 
Less Fats Deposition 
In hot season fat is not deposit in below the skin. It loss the body heat. 
Increase in Blood Flow toward Skin 
In hot season the blood vessels of skin are dilated and vasodialation occur to released body heat. 
Softness of Hair 
Hair of skin not erect in hot season not prevent the loss of heat energy. 
Sweet Gland 
Sweet glands become active and water is excreted out through skin. The blood becomes cold and internal temperature is maintained. It is called physiological temperature regulation. 

2. Behavioral Mechanism 
In this mechanism the animal released heat by their body activities. 
Movement toward Cold Places 
Animal move from hot to cold places. They remain in shade or moist place to reduce their body heat. 
Use of Thin Clothes 
Man use thin clothes during summer season. 


Role of Brain in Thermoregulation

The body temperature regulation in human is based on complex homeostatic system facilitated by feedback mechanism. 

The Control Center 
The homeostatic thermostate is present in the hypothalamus, a brain part. It respond to the changes in the temperature above and below 37oC. 
Warm Temperature 
Incase of increase in temperature above 37oC certain warm temperature sensitive thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus and other parts of nervous system send the signals to the system that increase the blood flow to the skin and also cause sweat gland activation and sweat is evaporated for the cooling. 
Cold Temperature 
In cold temperature, the cold receptor send the impulse to hypothalamus to inhibit heat loss mechanism and activate the heat conservation mechanism. 

Fever
When the temperature of the body is increased beyond a set point it is called Fever or Pyrexia. 

Cause of Fever
The main cause of fever is the viral or bacterial infection. These germs in blood vessels produce a chemical substance called pyrogen. It increases the body temperature than normal. 

Importance

• Fever helps to kill the germs

• It indicates any abnormal condition in the body or infection.